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THE INSECT WORLD. 


AVIL CO. LITH. PHIUA. 




THE 

IviviNG World: 

A COMPLETE 

jMATU^flLi HISTORY 

OF THE WORLD’S CREATURES, 

FISHES, REPTILES, INSECTS. BIRDS AND MAMMALS. 


FOUNDED UPON THE THEORY OF THE PROGRESSION OF SPECIES, AND IN ACCORDANCE 
WITH GENETIC REVELATION, SCRIPTURAL TRUTHS, AND 
THE HARMONY OF NATURE. 

With Introduction Describing the Geological Ages, Changes in the 
Earth’s Crusts, Fossil Rerriains of Extinct Anirnals, 
and Monsters of the Ancient Seas. 

REPLETE WITH ANECDOTE. INCIDENT AND ADVENTURE. ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE HABITS 

OF THE ANIMALS DESCRIBED. 


Abounding with Thrilling Experiences,. Wonderful Discovery, Exciting 

* 

Episodes and Descriptions of the Marvellous Curiosities 
of Nature in all parts of the Globe. 


'U 







& ,9>n 


BUEL, 

v 

AUTHOR OF 

“The Beautiful Story,” “The World’s Wouders,” “Sea and Land,” “Exile Life in Siberia,” Etc., Etc. 


EMBELLISHED WITH OVER 1200 ELEGANT ENGRAVINGS, 

ILLUSTRATING THE ANIMALS OF THE EARTH IN THEIR NATURAL CONDITION, 

AND 

EIGHT MAGNIFICENT COLORED PLATES. 


HOLLOWAY & CO., 

Nos. 112 ^and 114 North Sixth Stree 
ST. LOUIS, MO. 



1889 . 







*** The illustrations in this work being from original drawings, and protected by copy¬ 
right, their reproduction in any form is unlawful, and notice is herebjr given that persons 
guilty of infringing the copyright thereof will be prosecuted. 


TX 

* 


Copyrighted, 

1889, 

By H. S. Smith, 
(all rights reserved.) 








OR THE BASIS UPON WHICH “THE LIVING WORLD” IS FOUNDED. 



INCE the advocacy of a theory is much like the pursuit of a material 
substance guided by the shadow it casts, it was not without diffi¬ 
dence that I undertook the preparation of a Natural History 
upon the plan herewith submitted. While the idea serving me as a 
basis may have been conceived by others, and is intimated by 
Buffon, yet I may claim for the plan an originality that is likely 
to invite, if not excite, the criticisms of such strict scientists as hold 
tenaciously to the theory that there can be no common correspon¬ 
dence between geology and the Genetic account of creation. 
While believing that there is a perfect corroboration of the testi¬ 
mony of Genesis, and that this fact is abundantly attested by the 
witness of all nature, as well as by the mute, though even more 
convincing evidences of geology, yet I cannot undertake an elucidation of either 
theory, except as an incidental explanation of the purposes of this work may 
involve a brief outline of the Genetic basis, upon which it has been planned and 
constructed. The harmony which exists between revelation and approved 
science—by which latter expression • I mean the deductions of the world’s most distinguished 
scientists—is briefly outlined in the introductory pages of this work, preliminary to a description 
of the earliest forms of life. In the belief that my readers will accept this theory, so well established 
by Winchell, Buckland and other great palaeontologists, to whose writings I beg to offer my pro¬ 
found acknowledgments, I shall proceed briefly to a description of the geological ages of the world, 
in which will be found indisputable evidence of the progression of species, upon which demon¬ 
stration The Living World has been prepared. 

It is to the rocks, the strata and the fossils, that we must turn for information respecting the 
age of the earth and the creatures that have peopled it in the aeons of the past. Though they can¬ 
not speak, yet upon each God has written, in a language which those who carefully study can read, 
with infinite delight, the records of the ages. Some years ago the hieroglyphics on the obelisks 
of Egypt and the walls of resurrected Nineveh were as so many carvings destitute of meaning, 
but patient study served to decipher them, and what were once unintelligible arrow-heads and crude 
pictures are now read as the records of a people who perished with all the monuments of their skill, 
learning, wealth and industry. The so-called everlasting rocks, precipitated, by the mighty sol¬ 
vents of nature, transmuted in the alembic wherein are deposited all the ingredients of earth, 
eroded by waves, ground by terrific forces, vitrified by furious fires, are covered with the hand¬ 
writings of Omnipotence, and are as easily decipherable as are the hewn and carved stones of 
buried cities, and tell the story of the ages in language no less explicit. 

As nearly every school-boy now knows, the earth’s crust is composed of several strata, or layers, 
which as geologists have discovered, are arranged in successive series, or chronological groups, 

(i) 


















2 


INTRODUCTION. 


each of which is distinguishable not only by the different character of material composing it, 
but also by fossil remains found therein, which afford a means for proximately determining the 
time required in their formation. These several layers may be likened to the figures on the dial of a 
clock, since they serve to mark the time, or rather epochs, or eras, in the earth’s existence, and to 
each is therefore given a name to indicate the infinitely great periods that have elapsed since God’s 
hand began the work of fashioning the world. 

These general divisions are again subdivided, just as the hours on the clock are divided into 
minutes, in order that the measurements of time may be more exactly reckoned. The general 
divisions, arranged in their regular order, are known by the following scientific names, viz.: The 
Archaean (meaning beginning) the Palaeozoic (ancient life), the Mesozoic (middle life), and the 
Neozoic (new life). The subdivisions of these general groups are represented in the following table • 

Mr. Hinman has made 
another division, in which 
the special and characteristic 
fossils of each period are 
given, as also the relative 
time occupied, so to speak, 
by each epoch, but in which 
the orders are reversed; that 
is, on a descending scale, in¬ 
stead of an ascending table, 
as I have given above. This 
order has been heretofore in¬ 
variably observed by writers 
on geology and natural his¬ 
tory, though it is manifestly 
improper when applied to the 
latter, since all nature proceeds upon an ascending scale. His arangement is as follows : 

In the oldest, or Arch^an stra¬ 
tum, no fossil remains have been found, 
though this fact does not necessarily 
imply that there was no animgl life on 
our globe during that period. The 
inconceivably great time that has . 
elapsed, the immense superposition 
of stratum on stratum, and parti¬ 
cularly the metamorphosis that the 
strata have undergone by the action 
of fire, would have destroyed any 
trace of fossil remains, however nu¬ 
merous they may have been. But 
the absence of all fossils ‘ ‘ prevents 
us from determining the relative ages 
of the different parts of this group,” 
as Hinman observes. 

The Paleozoic Era, on the 
other hand, is distinguished for the abundance of animal and vegetable life that then existed, 
though it was in this period that these evidences of abounding life first appeared. This primary 
animal life, however, was all of the simplest, I might say almost rudimentary, forms, so low in 
the scale as scarcely to be distinguishable from the vegetable. Representatives still survive in 
the protozoanid.ee, as will be found explained in this work. 


PRIMARY OR PALEOZOIC 

SECOND- 

TERTIARY 

Relative 
length 
of various 
Geological 
Periods 

> 

I 

> 

z 

CAMBRIAN 

SILURIAN 

DEVONIAN 

CARBONIFEROUS 

s 

k 

1 

-«£ 

»> 

CRETACE0U8 

EOCENE 

2 

§ 

m 

PLIOCENE | 





SEA 

VE 

ED 





THALLOGENS 

PLANTS 

Relative age of various groups 








RNS 




ACROGENS 



F 

E! 


PALM 

8 



(gymnosperms 

s 

(. ANGIOSPERMS 
\ 




( 

:onif 

•RS 







jlLMS 




i 

iALYX 





CORO 

LLA 
















LOWER GROUPS 

_incl.arthropoda 

ANIMALS 












FISHES 


















REPTILES 












MAMMALS 





— MAN 


ERAS OF TIME—CORRESPONDING TO HOURS. 

PERIODS OF TIME—CORRESPONDING TO MINUTES. 

Archaean, 

f Laurentian 
, \ Huronian 

Paleozoic,. 

f Cambrian 
| Lower Silurian 

1 | Upper Silurian 
| Devonian 

[ Carboniferous 4 

Mesozoic,. 

f Permian 

1 Triassic 
) Jurassic 
[ Cretaceous 

Neozoic,. i 

i 

f Tertiary 
\ Quaternary 




















































INTRODUCTION. 


3 


The Cambrian Age, or the secondary period of the Palaeozoic, is remarkable for the prolific 
growth of sea-weeds which then flourished, but animal life was plentiful, somewhat more developed, 
though none of the creatures of this period were provided with a back-bone. The species most 
numerous were two crustaceans, viz., the trilobites (three-lobed creatures), and an animal resem¬ 
bling the horse-shoe crab. 

The two Silurian Ages are distinguished as being the periods when mollusks were most 
numerous ; of the fossils found everywhere through these strata, those species having soft bodies are 
most plentiful, such as the snail, nautilus, and other species of the cuttle-fish. In the Upper Silu¬ 
rian, trilobites begin to diminish and corals to appear, also forms of crinoids, or animals that were 
so nearly vegetable that they are called stone-lilies. There were also several land plants of the fern 
species, and a few vertebrate sea-animals of the shark kind. 

In the Devonian Age fishes appeared in the greatest abundance, their fossil bones being so 
numerous that it has been called the “ Age of Fishes.” However, these primary fishes presented 
great simplicity of structure, as compared with those of the present period. Their bones were 
imperfect, and instead of scales the body was covered with shield plates. Land plants now showed 
greater exuberance of growth and developed into forests. 

The Carboniferous Period shows another remarkable change. The forests had become so 
rank, under the effects of warm vapors and fruitful soil, that the earth became cumbered with an ex¬ 
cess of vegetation, which in decaying formed immense beds in marshy districts. These beds were 
gradually covered by new growths, and were converted into bituminous coal. This first conver¬ 
sion, by the action of heat, was subsequently transmuted into anthracite, graphite, and other min¬ 
erals. The forests were much larger, though still retaining the fern characteristic, and new forms 
of vegetable growth appeared in giant canes and club mosses. It was during this period, too, that 
amphibians made their first appearance, forming a connecting link between fishes and reptiles. 
Insects also came into being now, to people the rank and lofty forests. 

The Mesozoic Era was the period of giant reptiles, existing in great numbers and of monster 
size, such as the teleosaurus, ichthyosaurus, megalosaurus, pterodactyl, and other flying, swim¬ 
ming and creeping creatures, some of which were more than fifty feet in length, and of propor¬ 
tionate bulk. 

In the Triassic Period first appeared creatures bird-like in form, the impressions of whose 
feet and three toes are to be seen in the sandstones of some valleys in Connecticut and New Jersey. 
A few mammals, of a very low type, also came into being during this era. 

The Jurassic Age is particularly interesting for being the period when reptiles of ferocious 
aspect and appalling size predominated, wherein we observe a connecting link between reptiles and 
birds, as we shall show in the body of this work. 

The Cretaceous Period is distinguished for being the last stratum of which the fossil 
animal remains are wholly of extinct species. The group is subdivided into upper and lower, 
called the chalk and greensand formations, which are widely distributed over both continents. 
Thus at widely separated points in the ancient seas of four continents were similar deposits pro¬ 
duced during the same geological period, characterized by the animal remains which they include 
.of the same general type, and often of the same species. The ichthyornis, or fish-bird, made its 
appearance during this period. This curious creature had the back-bone of a fish, a keel-like 
breast-bone, and a long, slender beak, which was armed with socketed teeth. It was equal to a 
pigeon in size, 

The Neozoic Era represented a change no less remarkable than that of the Mesozoic, for as 
the latter gave birth to giant reptiles, so it was during the Neozoic period that these huge crea¬ 
tures disappeared to give place to higher orders of species, and were accordingly succeeded by 
mammals. Birds developing from the pterodactyl and the ramphorhynchus, the primitive forms, 
also now appeared, and the land became peopled with creatures whose forms resemble those by 
which we are now surrounded. 


4 


INTRODUCTION. 


In the Tertiary Age, North America presented a very different aspect from that of to-day. 
The sea covered nearly the whole of that portion of the United States south of the junction of the 
Ohio river with the Mississippi. Highlands were visible in the Tennessee region, and in parts of 
Arkansas and also of Mexico, but a greater portion of the section named was under the sea. In ' 
Kansas, and westward to the Rocky Mountains, there were immense lakes, which, drying up, left 
in their beds the remains of many creatures whose species are now extinct, but which are illus¬ 
trated in this work. What was equally singular is the fact that all of North America possessed a 
mild climate, and was covered by a luxuriant vegetation of marvellous diversity, with tropical plants 
growing in profusion along the shores of the Arctic sea. The giant trees of California are the 
representative types of the forests that distinguished the Tertiary epoch. This period is also 
called the “ Age of Mammals ” for the reasons above given. Among the numerous species, the 
prototypes of those now existing, and which have undergone wonderful change through constant 
progression, was the horse, which appeared during this era, but very dissimilar in form from that 
which it has since assumed. The primitive horse was scarcely larger than a fox, and had three 
hoofed toes on the hinder feet, and no less than four similarly hoofed toes on the fore feet. 
Remains have also been discovered showing the horse to have increased in size to that of 
a sheep, when one of the toes on each fore foot was dropped; and still later it developed into a 
single-hoofed animal, the size of an ass, with side toes scarcely long enough to touch the ground. 

The Quaternary Age is that in which we live, but it has already extended over a very long 
period of time, and far beyond the grasp of transmitted history. It has been within this age that 
some of the mightiest forces and catastrophes of nature have combined to precipitate extraordinary 
changes both in climate and conditions. By reason, as is supposed, of the shifting of the declina¬ 
tion of the earth, a great deluge of ice was sent crashing down over the northern regions of both 
continents, converting the mild climates theretofore existing into perpetual frost, as we now find it. 
Not alone this, but the animals which roamed those regions were destroyed by the moving fields 
of ice and snow ; such monsters as the mammoth, mastodon, woolly rhinoceros, sabre-toothed 
tiger, cave bear, Irish elk and other species, became extinct during this period, whose bones, how¬ 
ever, are plentifully found deeply imbedded in the earth upon the spot where they so suddenly per¬ 
ished, to teach us how wonderful are the ways of Providence, and how feeble is the power and 
understanding of man, but for whose care God is ever watchful and considerate. 




PAGE | 

Introduction, .... i 


LOWER INVERTE¬ 
BRATES. 


The Birth of Species, . 


*3 

Fossils of Extinct Animals, 

15 

How New Forms came into 


Existence, .... 


1 7 

Order of Mollusca, 


20 

Teredo, ..... 


20 

Lithophytes, . . . 


20 

Corals,. 


20 

Argonauta, .... 


21 

Nautilus,. 


25 

Cephalopoda, . . . 


25 

Cuttle Fish, . . . 


27 

Giant Octopus, . . 


28 

Decapoda, .... 


28 

Stories about the? Octo- 


pus,. 


29 

Squids, .... 


33 

Snails,. 


33 

Mussels,. 


34 

Star Fish, .... 


35 

Urchins,. 


36 

Jelly Fish, .... 


39 

Crustacea, . . . . 


4i 

Barnacles. 


42 

Sand Fleas, . . . 


43 

Shrimps. 


43 

Fish Lice, .... 


44 

Prawns,. 


45 

Crawfish,. 


47 

Lobsters, . 


47 

Crabs,. 


48 

FISHES. 



Wonders of Creation, 


57 

Organism of the Fish, 


58 

Nest-building Fishes, 

59 

Sticklebacks, . . . 


60 

Toad Fish, ... 


61 

Frog Fish. 


61 

Rock Fish,. 


62 

Sun Fish,. 


63 

White Fish, . . . . 


63 

Piraya,. 

. 63-88 

Lampreys. 


64 

Apodes—Eels, . . 


bb 

Mud-whipper, . . 


68 

Flying Fish, . . . 


68 


PAGE 


Flying Gunards, ... 69 

Lancet Fish,. 70 

Slime Fish, . 71 

Northern Sea-cat, . . . 72 

Angler, or Frog Fish, . 72 

Sharks,. 73 

Stories about Sharks, . 74 

Great Pilgrim Shark, . 74 

Nurse Shark, .... 74 

Mackerel Shark, . . 75 

Basking Shark, ... 75 

Thresher Shark, ... 75 

Sea-hound Shark, . . 75 

Blue Shark, .... 75 

Swell Shark, .... 75 

Cat Shark,. 76 

Tiger Shark, .... 76 

Monk Fish, .... 76 

Adventures with Sharks, 77 
Cow Shark, .... 79 

Eel Shark,. 79 

Spiny Shark. 79 

Sleeper Shark, ... 79 

Remora,. 79 

Dog Fish. . So 

The Rays.81 

Bordered,. 81 

Thomback, .... 81 

Clear-nosed, .... &1, 

Electric,. 81 

Sting,. 84 

Whip,. 85 

Balloon Fish,. 81 

Swell Fish,. 81 

Saw Fish,.82 

Adventures with Saw Fish, 82 

Skates, . 84 

Globe Fish,. 85 

Sturgeon,. 85 

Sterlet,. 85 

Pikes,. 85 

Gars,. 85 

Pelican Fish,. 86 

Catfishes,. 86 

Eel Pout,. 86 

Sheat Fish,. 87 

Cup-bearers,. 87 

Gymnarchus,. 88 

Carp. ... 88 

Gudgeon,. 89 

Sea Barbel, ... 89 

Suckers, ... ■ • 89 

(5) 


Sword Fish,. 

PAGE 

89 

Sailor Sword Fish, . . . 

89 

Stories about Sword Fish, 

89 

Herring,. 

90 

Sprat,. 

90 

Smelt,. 

90 

Grayling. 

91 

White Fish,. 

9 i 

Trout,. 

91 

Salmon,. 

91 

Pickerel. 

92 

Muscalonge,. 

93 

Saw Perch,. 

94 

Sea-devil, ...... 

94 

Blue Fish. 

04 

Pompano,. 

96 

Moon Fish, . 

96 

Mackerel,. 

96 

Bonito,. 

98 

Dolphin,. 

99 

Thread Fish,. 

99 

King Herring, .... 

99 

Fly shooter,. 

99 

P° r gy> . 

100 

Coral Fish,. 

100 

Surgeon Fish, ..... 

100 

Eagle Fish,. 

100 

Weak Fish,. 

100 

Red Fish,. 

100 

Sheep’s Head, .... 

100 

Drum Fish,. 

100 

Red Snapper, .... 

101 

Bass. 

IOI 

Ocean Sun Fish, ... 

IOI 

Perch. 

102 

Parrot Fishes, .... 

102 

Lump Fish,. 

102 

Lump Sucker, .... 

103 

Climbing Perch, .... 

I °3 

Fighting Fish, .... 

103 

Mullet, . 

104 

Sculpin, . 

104 

Sea-raven,. 

104 

Growling Cock, .... 

104 

Swallow Fish, . . . . 

105 

Great Weaver. 

'05 

Ocean Butterfly, . . . 

io 5 

Oar Fish,. 

105 

Codfish,. 

‘05 

Haddock,. 

106 

Pollock, . 

106 

Whiting,. 

106 


PAGE 


Hake,.106 

Halibut,.106 

Turbot.107 

Plaice,.107 

Trunk Fish,.107 

Flounder,.107 

Tobacco pipe, . ... 107 

Snipe Fish,.108 

Sea Horse,.108 

Globe Fish, .... 109 
Scaly Salamander, ... 109 

Eyed Pteraclis, .... 109 

Mammalia of the Sea. 

Cetacea,.109 

Sea Unicorn, .... no 
Stories of the Narwhal, no 

Porpoises,.no 

Dolphins, . . .* . . nr 
Stories about Dolphins, 111 
Sperm Whales, ... 113 

Pursuit of Sperm Whale, 113 

Rorqual,.113 

Stories about Whales, . 114 

Whalebone,.114 

Various Species of Whales, 115 
How Whale is Hunted, . 116 

The Whale Fishery, . . 118 

Adventures with Whales, 120 

The Serenia,.122 

Manatees,.123 

Dugong.124 

Walrus,.124 

Stories about the Walrus, 125 

The Seal,.126 

Stories about the Seal, . 126 

Various Species of Seal, . 127 


REPTILES. 


Characteristics of Reptiles, 131 

Frogs, .133 -* 

Metamorphosis of Fiogs, 134 
Bellow of the Frog, . . 135 
How Frogs kill Fishes, . 135 
A singular story, ... 135 

Bull Frog,.136 

Tree Frog,.137 

Pond Frog, ...... 137 

Flying Frog, . 137 

Nurse Frog, .... 137 

Solitary,.139 

Toads, . . 137 

Banded,.138 
































































































































6 


CONTENTS. 


Toads. 

Surinam,.• . 138 

Garden,.139 

Horned,.139 

Lizards,.140 

Peculiarities of Lizards, 140 
Flying Gecko, ... 141 
Flying Dragon, ... 141 

The Chameleon, . . 141 

Iguana,.142 

Hunting the Iguana, . 142 

Various species. . . . 143 
Monitors, ..... 145 

Hedge Lizard, . , . 145 
Metallic Lizard, ... 14b 
Pale-Snake Lizard, . 146 

Amphisboena.146 

Seps Chalciclicn. . . . 147 
Wallowing Worm, . . 147 

Blind, or Slow Worm, 147 
Grotto Proteus, ... 148 
Curiosities of the Pro¬ 
teus, .148 

The Basilisk, .... 149 
Stories of the Basilisk, 149 
Frilled Lizard, ... 150 
Water Dog, .... 151 
Capturing the Creature, 151 
Green Lizard, . . . . 152 
Spotted Lizard, ... 152 
Waran Lizard, . . . 132 

Debb Lizard,.152 

The Axolotl, .... 152 

Mud Eel,.153 

Giant Salamander, . . 153 

Gila Monster, .... 156 

Experiments with, . 156 
Crocodiles, 

Saurians of the Ancient 

World,.159 

The Ichthyosauri, . . 160 

The Plesiosaurus, . . 161 

The Megalosaurus,. . 161 
The Pterodactyl, . . 162 

The Teleosaurus, . . 163 
The Dicynodon, . . 163 

The Belodon.163 

164 

165' 

166 

166 

167 

167 


The Crocodile, 

Its Former Sacredness, 
Double-crested Croco¬ 
dile, . 

Marsh Crocodile, . . 
Margined Crocodile, . 

Gavial,. 

Alligator.167 

Sacrifices to the Gavial, 167 
Adventures with, . . 

Battle with Crocodiles, 

Tiger and Crocodile, . 
Hunting the Crocodile, 

How Crocodiles Breed, 
Ophidia —Snakes. 

The Snake Families, . 
Organism of the Snake, 
Monster Serpents of the 
Ancient World, . . 
Process of Swallowing, 176 
How Snakes Protect 
their Young, . . . 177 

Snake Swallowing a 

Fish,.178 

Moccasins,.179 

Water Moccasin, . . 179 


168 

168 

171 

172 
172 

174 

174 

175 


PAGE 

Black Moccasin, ... 179 

Swamp Moccasin, . . 179 

Chittal Sea Snake, . . 180 
Yellow Sea Snake, . 180 

Eyed Sea Snake, . . 181 
Coral Snake, . . . . 181 
Wart Snake, .... 182 

Anaconda,.183 

Stories about Anacondas, 183 


Boa Constrictor, 
African Rock Snake, . 
Carpet Snake, . . . 
Ringed Boa, .... 
Dog-headed Boa, . . 

Boiguacu,. 

How the Boa Kills its 

Prey,. 

Exciting Stories of the 

Boa. 

Poisonous Reptiles,. . 
Cobra de Capello, . . 
A Strange Superstition, 
Effects of Music on 


185 

185 

186 
186 

186 

187 


The Hamadryas, . . 
African Spitting Snake, 
Rattlesnakes, .... 


Banded Rattlesnakes, . 
Horned Rattlesnakes, . 
Prairie Rattlesnakes, . 
Massassauga Rattle¬ 
snakes, 


Soft Shell Tortoise, . 219 

Matamata,.219 

Hawk’s-bill Turtle, . 220 
Tortoise Shell of Com¬ 
merce, .220 

Green Turtle, .... 220 
How the Green Turtle 
is Captured, ... 221 
Greek Turtle, .... 225 

INSECT LIFE. 

Creatures of Flowers and 

the Forests,.226 

Peculiarities of Insects, . 226 


Ground Rattlesnakes, 

Fer de Lance, .... 

The Copperhead, . . 
Vipers, or Adders, . . 
Common Viper, . . . 

India Viper, .... 
African Puff Adder, . 205 
Killing an Adder, . . 205 

River Jack,.206 

Horned Viper, . . . 207 
The Asp, . . . . 208 

Harmless Snakes, . . 208 
Spreading Adder, . . 208 
Glass Snake, .... 208 

Bull Snake,.209 

Blacksnake, .... 209 

King Snake.209 

Chicken Snake, . . . 210 
Corn Snake, . . . . 210 
House Snake, . . . 210 
Ground Snake, . . . 211 

Tortoises .211 

Organism of Tortoises, 212 
Pre-Adamite Turtles, . T12 
Characteristics of Tor¬ 
toises, .213 

214 

214 

21 5 

215 



Myriapoda, .... 


188 

Pamopida, .... 



Centipedes, .... 


189 

Earwigs,. 


191 

Singular Flies, . . 

. . 229 

192 

Scorpion, .... 

. . 230 

192 

Spiders . 

. • 231 


Mason, .... 

• • 232 

*93 

Crooked Legged, 

• • 233 

19b 

Water,. 

• • 233 

196 

Bird,. 

• • 233 

197 

Marginated, . . 

• • 234 

198 

Crab,. 

• • 234 

199 

Wall,. 

• • 235 

199 

Ribbon-linked, . 

■ • 236 

199 

Tarantula, . . . 

. . 236 

200 

Skin,. 

. . 236 


Black,. 

• • 236 

200 

Harlequin, . . . 

• • 237 

201 

Beetle, .... 


202 

Stone-dwelling, . 

• • 237 

202 r 

Tongue Worm, . . 

• • 237 

203 

Dragon Fly, . . . 


204 

Little Devds of Geoffroy, 238 

204 

Ant Lion, .... 

• • 238 


Lettered Tortoise, 

Chicken Tortoise, . 

Salt Water Tortoise, 

Box Tortoise, . . . 
Anecdotes of Tortoises, 216 


Wood Tortoise, . . . 216 
Elegant Tortoise, . . 216 
Speckled Tortoise, . . 216 
Painted Tortoise, . . 217 
Salt Marsh Tortoise. . 217 
Yellow Bellied Tortoise, 217 
Alligator Tortoise, . . 217 
Snake Tortoise, . . . 218 


Orthoptera, ..239 

Mantidae,.239 

May Flies,.240 

Locustidae.240 

Walking Sticks, .... 240 

.Grasshopper,.241 

Migrating Locusts, ... 241 
Crickets, ....... 242 

Candle Fly,.242 

Coleoptera.243 

Potato-bug,.243 

Beetles,.245 

Corn Weevil, ..... 245 

May-bug,.246 

Diptera,.252 

Mosquito,.253 

House-fly,.255 

Sheep-tick,.256 

Tsetse Fly,.256 

Flea..257 

Butterflies, . . . . 258 

Mpths.261 

The Silk -worm, .... 263 
Twelve-feathered Moth, 264 

Hop Spinner Moth, . . 264 

Oak Leaf Moth, . . . 264 

Ants.266 

Singular Habits of Ants, 267 

Anecdotes of Ants, 

Termite Ants, . . 

"Bees. 

Stories of the Honey Bee, 273 
Wasps,.274 


268 

269 
271 


BIRDS. 

PAGE 

Connection between Birds 
and Reptiles, .... 276 
Evolution of one from 
another ..276 

277 

278 

279 

279 

280 


Connecting link, 

How Birds sail in the air, 
Structure of the Bird, 
Humming Birds, . . . 
Ruby Throat, . . 
Anecdotes of Humming 

Birds,. 

Sword-bill,. 

Flag tailed Sylph, . . 
Crimson Topaz, 


281 
286 

282 
282 


The Topaz.283 

Trailing Sylph, . . . 283 
Brilliant Elf, .... 283 
Spangled Coquette, . 284 
Homed Hummer, . . 283 

Sparkling Tail, . . . 284 

Conver’s Thorntail, . 284 
Flame-bearer, .... 284 
Black Warrior, . . . 285 

Avocet,.286 

Sickle-bill,.284 

Puff-leg,.284 

Racket-tail, .... 285 
Star Throat, .... 285 

White Cap,.285 

Sun Angel,.286 

Birds of Paradise, . 287 
Bold Honey-sucker, . 289 
Widdah Bird, .... 289 
Paradise Widow, . . 289 

Lyre Bird,.289 

Bird of the Gods, . . 290 
Superb Bird, .... 291 
Red Bird of Paradise, 292 

Spotted Bower Bird, . 292 
King Bird of Paradise, 293 
Radiant Crown, . . . 293 

Bright Wing.293 

Schlegel’s Bird, , . . 293 

Parrots,.293 

Parakeets,.294 

Warbling,.294 

Blue banded, .... 294 
Scaly-breasted, . . . 294 

Ground,.294 

Rin ged,.295 

\ eilow-bellied, ... 29 c 

Rose Hill,.295 

Parrots,.291; 

Grey,.295 

Amusing Stories, . . 296 
Hyacinth,.298 


Rose, 

Amazon Green, . 

Pigmy,. 

Carolina, .... 

Ring,. 

Blue-crowned, . . 

Owl, or Kakafio, . 

The Loris, .... 

Purple-capped Lory, 

The Macaws, .... 

Blue and Yellow Macaw 301 
Great Green Macaw, . 301 
Scarlet Macaw, . . . 301 
Cockatoos,...... 301 

Ruffle-necked Cockatoo 298 
Pink Cockatoo, . . . 302 


299 

299 

299 

299 

299 

300 
300 

300 

301 
301 





































































































CONTENTS. 


7 


PAGB 


Parrots. 

The Kea Cockatoo, . 302 
Banksian Cockatoo, . 302 
Sulphur-crested Cocka¬ 
too, .302 

Great White Cockatoo, 302 
Great Black Cockatoo, 302 

Toucans, .303 

Red-billed,.303 

Singular habits, . . . 303 
Hombills, . . . . 304 

Cuckoos,.305 

Stories of the Cuckoo, 306 

Giant,.308 

Ant-eating, ..... 308 

Chaparal Cock, .... 308 

The Hoopoe,.309 

Goat-suckers,.309 

Stories about Goat-suckers 309 

Swallows,.312 

Esculent,.312 

How nests are gathered 312 

Swifts,.313 

Doves, .314 

Bronze Wing, . . . . 314 

Turtle,.314 

Crested,.314 

The Dodo,.314 

Wonga,.315 

Maned,.315 

Crowned,.315 

Rock,.315 

Ringed,.315 

Parrot, .315 

Pigeons, .316 

Topknot,.316 

Toothed,.316 

Passenger,.316 

Stories about Carrier 
Pigeon,.317 


Burrowing Birds, . . 317 
The Kingfisher, . . . 318 
Laughing Jackass, . . 318 
Ternate Kingfisher, . 318 
Belted Kingfisher, . . 318 
Anecdotes of Kingfisher 319 


Jacamars, .320 

Bee-eaters.320 

Puffin, or Mask Bird, 321 
Stories of the Puffin, . 321 
Jackdaw, ...... 322 

Stormy Petrel, . . . 322 
Nesting habits of Petrel 322 
Wood peckers, ... 323 

Blue Bird,.324 

Bell Bird,.324 

Rollers,.324 

Singular notes of Bell 

Bird,.324 

Singing Birds, .... 325 

The Starling.326 

Cross-bill.326 

Bull-finch,.326 

Grosbeak,.327 

Chaffinch,.327 

Gold-finch,.328 

Girlitz,.328 

Magpie,.328 

Blackbird,.329 

Red Shouldered Bird, 329 

Cow-bird..329 

Cat-bird,.329 


Nightingale, .... 

PAGE | 

329 

Adjutant, . 

PAGB 

386 

Brown Thrush, . . . 

330 

Marvellous Voracity, • 

387 

Mocking Bird, . . . 

330 

The Jabira,. 

38S 

Baltimore Oriole, . . 

331 

Ibises,. 

388 

Stories about the Oriole, 

331 

Avocet. 

39 ° 

Wall-creeper, .... 

332 

Curlew,. 

390 

Nutcracker, .... 

333 

Godwit. 

39 1 

Blue Jay,. 

333 

Jacksnipe,. 

39 i 

Finches,. 

333 

Woodcock,. 

392 

Titmice,. 

334 

Ruff,. 

393 

House Wren, .... 

336 

Spoon-bill Snipe, . . 

393 

Shrikes,. 

336 

Golden Plover, . . . 

393 

Butcher Bird, .... 

337 

Kildeer Plover, . . . 

394 

Indigo Blue Bird, . . 

337 

Oyster Catcher, . . . 

394 

Cedar Bird, .... 

337 

Pebble Turner, . . . 

394 

Dotted Fly-snapper, . 

338 

Irish Sanderling, . . 

394 

Speckled Titmouse, . 

338 

Marsh Swallow, . . . 

395 

Necklace Fly-snapper, 

338 

Scabbard-bill, .... 

395 

Robin Redbreast, . . 

338 

Seriema,. 

395 

Garden Red-tail, . . 

338 

Sultan hen,. 

395 

Ground Robin, . . . 

339 

Shade Bird, .... 

39 6 

Garden Red-tail, . . 

339 

The Rail,. 

39 6 

Ortolan,. 

339 

Swimming Birds, . . . 

39 6 

Wagtails,. 

340 

Geese, . 

397 

Larks,. 

340 

Swans, . 

400 

Stories about Larks, . 

34 i 

Laws relating to Swans, 

4c 0 

Pipits,. 

342 

Cormorant,. 

401 

Sparrows,. 

343 

How used for Fishing, 

401 

The English Sparrow, 

343 

Water Hen, .... 

402 

Snow Bird,. 

344 

Ducks, . 

403 

Song Warblers, . . . 

344 

Grebes,. 

407 

Hedge Accenter, . . 

345 

Crested Gorfou, . . . 

409 

Rice Bird,orBob-o’-link 

345 

Arctic Parrot. 

409 

Strange Nest-building 


Great Auk,. 

410 

Birds . 

346 

Razor-bill,. 

410 

Parti-colored Wren, . 

346 

Little Auk,. 

410 

Australian Jungle Fowl, 

347 

Penguins,. 

411 

Its Wonderful Nest, . 

347 

Pelicans,. 

4 " 

Brush Turkey, . . . 

349 

Stories of the Pelican, 

412 

The Oven Bird, . . . 

35 ° 

Tropic Bird, .... 

413 

Pied Grallina, .... 

35 i 

Booby,. 

413 

Black-headed Synalaxis 351 

Darter,. 

414 

Weaver Birds, . . . 

352 

Sea Swallow, .... 

414 

Australian Trappe, . . 

352 

Scissors-bill Gull, . . 

414 

Singular Weaver Birds, 

353 

Gulls, or Terns, . . . 

415 

Tailor Bird,. 

354 

Wandering Albatross, 

417 

Singular Birds’ Nests, 

355 

Stormy Petrels, . . . 

418 

Satin Bower Bird, . . 

359 

Birds of Prf.y . 

419 

Gallinaceous Birds, . 

361 

Owls, ....... 

419 

Hokko Hen, .... 

361 

Secretary Bird, . . . 

421 

Pheasants,. 

362 

Hawks,. 

422 

Argus Pheasants, . . 

363 

Falconry and Falcons, 

423 

Shining Pheasants, . . 

3 6 3 

Kites,. 

43 ° 

American Pheasants, . 

363 

Buzzards,. 

43 > 

English Partridge, . . 

364 

Eagles. 

432 

Quails, . 

365 

Stories of the Eagle, . 

433 

Grouse,. 

368 

Vultures and Condors, 

437 

Great Bustard, . . . 

372 

Stories of the Condor, 

438 

Little Bustard, . . . 

372 

Turkey Buzzard, . . 

441 

Wild Turkey. 

372 

The Ostrich Family, . . 

442 

Wading Birds . 

374 

Connection Between Birds 


Flamingo,. 

375 

and Mammals, . . . 

443 

Cranes. 

3/6 

The Extinct Dinornis, . 

443 

Herons,. 

380 

Wingless Birds, .... 

443 

Sun Bittern, .... 

381 

Wonders of the Ostrich, . 

444 

Jacana,. 

3 Si 

Stories about the Ostrich, 

445 

Horned Screamer, . . 

382 

The Emeu,. 

448 

Storks, . 

382 

How the Emeu is Hunted 

448 

Stories about Storks, . 

382 

Rhea. 

449 

Whale-headed Storks, 

385 

Hunting the Rhea, . . 

45 ° 

Boat-bill Storks, . . . 

386 

The Cassowary, .... 

451 

Spoonbill,. 

386 

The Mooruk,. 

452 


BATS. 

PAGB 


Metamorphosis of Birds 

to Mammals.4c 1 

b ats.453 

Bats in Superstitions, . . 454 
Singular Habits of Bats, 455 
Species of Bats, .... 456 
Fruit-eaters, .... 456 
Horse-shoe, .... 457 

Lyre,.457 

Red,.457 

Long-eared, .... 458 
Long-winged, .... 458 

Collar,.458 

Hare,.458 

Rose-leafed, .... 458 

Vampire,.458 

Kalong,.458 

Egyptian.459 

Tongue-using, . . . 459 
Wart-lipped, .... 459 
Tailless Vampire, . . 459 

Pouched,.460 

Hammer-head, . . . 460 
Armor-bearing, . . . 460 

Mexican,.460 

Nyctiname.460 

Colugo,.460 


MAMMALS. 

A Review of the Theory 
of Development, . . 461 
The Marvellous Adapta¬ 
tion of Species, . . . 462 
Monotremes, .... 464 
Duck-billed Platymus, 464 
Porcupine Ant eater, . 464 
Peculiarities of Ant- 


eaters, .465 

Eccentricities of Nature 465 
Egg-laying Mammals, 465 

Marsupials,.466 

Extinct Species of 
Pouched Animals, . 466 

Opossums,.467 

Wombats,.469 

Phalangers,.469 

Australian Bear, . . . 469 
Spotted Cuscus, . . . 469 
Flying Mammals, . . 469 
Bandicoots, . . . . 472 

Kangaroos,.472 

Wallabee,.474 

Ant-eaters,.475 

Tasmanian Devil, . . 477 
Zebra Wolf, .... 477 

Edentates,.478 

Armadillos,.478 

Sloths, ....... 479 

The Wonderful Ai, . 480 
Stories about Sloths, . 481 
The Great Ant eater, . 482 
Singular Aard-vark, . 483 
The Armored Manis, . 483 

Rodents,.484 

Observations about Ro¬ 
dents.485 

Hares,.487 

Conies and Rabbits, . 490 

Pikas,.491 

Squirrels, .492 

Facts about Squirrels, . 492 
















































































































































8 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 


Rodents. 

Flying Squirrels, . . 494 
Wood-chucks, . . . 494 
Prairie Dogs, .... 495 

Beavers,.496 

Facts about Beavers, . 496 


Porcupinesand Rodents 498 


Capybaraand Cavies, . 498 
Guinea Pig, .... 500 
Paca and Agoutis, . . 501 

Porcupines,.501 

How Porcupines Fight, 503 

Biscacha,.505 

Chinchillas, .... 505 

Gopher..506 

Jerboas and Dormouse, 507 
Stories of Dormouse, . 508 

Rats,.508 

Lemmings.509 

Mice and Voles, ... 510 

Musk Rat,.512 

Hamsters,.513 

Dwellings of Hamsters 513 

Jerbillies,.514 

Rats’ Curious Habits, . 514 

Tuko and Jumping 

Hare,.517 

Insectivora,.518 

Wonders of Mole Life, 518 
Agoutis and Shrews, . 520 
Hedgehogs, .... 522 
Gymnura and Colungo, 523 

Cetaceans,.523 

Whales,.523 

Grampuses,.525 

Dolphins, ..... 525 

Porpoises,.525 

Coryphenes, .... 526 
Elephants and Mam¬ 
moths, .527 

Alaskan Mammoths, . 528 
Siberian Mammoths, . 528 
Asiatic Mastodon, . . 528 
Indian Elephant, . . 529 
Ceylon Elephant, > . . 529 
Sumatran Elephant, . 529 
Siamese Elephant, . . 529 


Sacred White Elephant, 530 
Capturing Elephants, 530 
Elephants of History, . 531 
The African Elephant, 532 
Motherly Affection of . 533 


Thrilling Adventures, 

PAGE 

534 

The Musk Ox, . . . 

PAGE 

594 

Stories of the Elephant, 

534 

Elands,. 

594 

Elephants at Labor, . 

536 

Antelopes,. 

596 

Conies,. 

542 

Gazelles,. 

601 

Damans,. 

543 

The Saiga,. 

602 

Toxodons, ..... 

543 

Boks,. 

603 

The Tapir,. 

546 

Gnu. 

606 

Rhinoceroses, .... 

547 

Adventures with Gnus, 

606 

White,. 

547 

Sheep, . 

610 

Keitloa,. 

547 

Sheep and Goats, . . 

6n 

Bornean, . 

548 

Ibex,. 

613 

Indian,. 

548 

Coons,. 

615 

Javan. 

548 

Coati and Potto, . . . 

617 

Rhinaster,. 

548 

Panda,. 

617 

Singular provisions, . 

548 

Bears,. 

618 

Trapping Rhinoceros, 

549 

Hybernating Bears, 

620 

Exciting Adventures, 

55 o 

Anecdotes of Bears, 

620 

A Rhinoceros Ride, . 

55 i 

Adventures with . . 

624 

A Furious Spectacle, . 

55 i 

Sea Otters,. 

627 

Savage Battles, . . . 

552 

Weasel, .. 

628 

Ferocity of Rhinoceros, 553 

Badger,. 

628 

Tarpan, or Wild Horse, 

554 

Polecat and Mink, . . 

629 

Surprising Adaptation, . 

554 

Wolverine,. 

629 

The Wild Horse, . . . 

559 

Glutton,. 

629 

The Wild Ass, .... 

560 

Ferret and Weasel, . 

630 

The Quagga,. 

561 

Ermine and Skunk, . 

631 

The Daw and Zebra, . 

561 

Marten and Sable, . . 

632 

Wild Swine,. 

562 

Foxes,. 

633 

An Ancient Boar Hunt, 563 

Jackals,. 

638 

African Bush hog, . . . 

563 

Wolves,. 

640 

How Bush-hog is Hunted, 564 

Stories About Wolves, 641 

The Babyrousa, .... 

564 

Wild Dogs, .... 

642 

The Vlacke Vark, . . . 

564 

Adventures with . . 

642 

The Peccary,. 

565 

Dingo,. 

Indian Dhole, . . . 

643 

Hippopotamus,. 

567 

644 

Adventures with, . . 

567 

Hyenas,. 

645 

Ungulates, . 

5 6 9 

Stories About Hyenas, 

646 

Camels. 

569 

Civets and Weasels, . 

646 

Wonderful Adaptation, 569 

Mongoos and Ichne- 


Bactrian Camel, . . . 

572 

umon,. 

647 

Dromedary, .... 

572 

Lions. 

649 

Stories About Camels, 

573 

Stories About Lions, . 
Thrilling Adventures, 

650 

Guanaco and Llama, . 

573 

651 

Vicuna and Alpaca, . 

574 

Tigers,. 

653 

The Deer Family. . . 

575 

Hunting Tigers, . . . 

654 

The Giraffe, .... 

586 

Man-eating Tiger. . . 

6 5 6 

Auroch,. 

587 

The Leopard, .... 

656 

Buffalo,. 

587 

The Ingwe, .... 

657 

Indian Zebu, .... 

588 

Adventures with Ingwe, 

658 

Yak and Saiga, . . . 

589 

Chetah,. 

6 59 

Adventures with the 
Buffalo,. 

590 

Jaguar,. 

661 


PAGE 

Adventures with Jaguar, 661 


How Jaguar Hunts, . 661 

The Puma..662 

Stories About Puma, . 663 
Serval, or Tiger Cat, . 663 

Ocelot,.664 - 

Tortoise-shell Tiger, . 664 

Wild Cat,.666 

Lynx,.666 

Primates,.667 

Difference Between 
Man and Monkey, 669 
Anthropoids, .... 670 

Lemurs,.671 

The Loris,.673 

Galagos.674 

Tarseir,.675 

Aye-aye,.675 

Marmosets, .... 676 

Lion Monkey, ... 677 
Night Monkey, . . . 678 

Sakis,.680 

Death’s Head Monkey, 681 
Bearded Cuxio, . . . 681 
Paronacus, .... 683 
Howling Monkeys, 683 
Spider Monkey, . . . 686 

Charneck,.687 

Mandrill,.688 

Drill and Gelada, . . 689 

Baboons, .690 

Macaques,.651 

Stories about Bunder 
Monkeys, .... 693 
Proboscis Monkey, . . 698 
Stories of the Hoonu- 

man.700 

Gibbons,.702 

Apes,.703 

Orang-outan, .... 704 

Adventures, .... 704 
Hunting the Orang, . 705 
Chimpanzees, .... 706 
Stories of the Chimpan¬ 
zee, .707 

The Gorilla, .... 708 
Stories about Gorillas, 708 
Adventures with the Go¬ 
rilla, .710 

Cunning of Monkeys, 712 
The of Story Man, . . 712 






















































































LOWER INVERTE¬ 
BRATES. 

PAGE 


Fishes of the Silurian age, 14 
Fossil Mollusks, six spec¬ 
ies, . 16 

Ammonite Shells, three 

species,. 17 

Fossil Sea Hedgehogs, . 18 

Modern Hedgehogs, . . 18 

Primary Shell, .... 18 

Slimonia Acuminated, . 19 

Teredo, or Ship Worm, . 20 

Wood Borer,. 21 

Stone Borer,. 21 

Sea Urchins, twelve speci¬ 
mens . 22 

The Nautilus, .... 23 

Different forms of Coral, 24 
Nautilus in three positions, 25 
Cuttle Fish, two positions, 26 
Shell of Nautilus, ... 28 

Octopoda Cuttle, ... 28 

Decapoda Cuttle, ... 29 

The Fabled Kraken, . 29 

The Octopus, ..... 31 

Attacked by a Squid, 32 

Snails, three specmiens, 34 
Heart Mussel, .... 34 

Sea Cucumber, .... 35 

Leather Sea Urchin, . . 35 

Sea Stars and Cucumbers, 36 
Urchins and Sea Stars, six 

specimens,. 37 

School of Jelly Fish, . . 38 

Moss Animal, .... 39 

Swimming Snail, ... 40 

Club-bearing Urchin, 40 

Mussel Shells, .... 40 

Antedon Crinoid, ... 40 

Shield Porcupine, ... 41 

Tubular Holothuria, . . 41 

Tree Snail.41 

Hyalea Tridentata, . . 41 

Goose Barnacle, ... 42 

Dredging for Sea Shrimps, 43 
Fish Lice, four specimens, 44 

Wall Worm. 44 

Trilobite, . 44 

Gill-foot, . 44 

Edible Prawn.45 

Opossum Shrimp, . . 45 


PAGE 


PAGE 

Larva of Crab, .... 

46 

Remora,. 

80 

Sea Mouse, . 

46 

Dog Fish and Sea Hound, 

81 

Fairv Shrimp,. 

46 

Sting Ray,. 

82 

Mantis Shrimp, .... 

47 

Balloon Fish,. 

82 

Crabs, two specimens, . 

47 

Saw Fish,. 

83 

Craw Fish,. 

47 

Adventure with Saw Fish, 

83 

Hermit Crab, .... 

49 

Sturgeon,. 

85 

Robber Crab. 

5 ° 

Gar Pike,. 

85 

Crab Seizing a Goat, . . 

5 i 

Sea Boy, . 

85 

King Crab,. 

52 

Ocean Scorpion, .... 

86 

Japanese Spider Crab, . 

53 

Sheat Fish,. 

86 

Porcupine Crab, .... 

53 

Weis in Coat of Mail, . 

87 

Woolly Crab,. 

54 

Carp,.• . 

88 

West Indies Land Crab, 

54 

Gudgeon,. 

88 

Blind Crab, . 

55 

Barbel,. 

89 

One-eyed Louse, . . . 

56 

Anchovy,. 

89 

One eyed Sailor, . . . 

56 

Sword Fish,. 

89 



Sailor Sword Fish, . . 

90 

FISHES. 


Attacked by Sword Fish, 

9 i 

Nest of the Sticklebacks, 

60 

Sprat and Herring, . . 

92 

Toad Fish on its Nest, . 

61 

White Fish and Grayling, 

92 

Frog Fish,. 

61 

Pike Seizing a Bird, . . 

93 

Toad Fish of Saragossa, 

62 

Salmon,. 

94 

Rock Fish,. 

62 

Brook Trout,. 

94 

Jumping Fish, .... 

63 

Pike, or Pickerel, . . . 

94 

Nest of the Piraya, . . 

64 

Nine-finned Pike, . . . 

94 

Nest of the White Fish, 

65 

African Pike,. 

95 

Nest of the Sun Fish, 

65 

Bat Fish, . 

95 

Lamprey Eels Building 


Haimara,. 

95 

Nest,. 

66 

Saw Perch, . 

96 

Common Eel,. 

67 

Croppie. 

96 

Lamprey Eel, .... 

67 

Gilt Head,. 

96 

Munena Eel,. 

67 

Mackerel,. 

96 

Electric Eel,. 

67 

Coryphene. 

97 

Blind Fish,. 

68 

Archer Fish,. 

97 

Mud Whipper, .... 

68 

Tunny,. 

98 

Flying Herrings, . . . 

69 

Coral Fish, .... 

98 

Swallow Fish. 

69 

Chsetodon,. 

99 

Flying Gunards, 

70 

Surgeon Fish, .... 

100 

Sea Cat,. 

7 i 

Eagle Fish,. 

100 

Northern Sea Cat, . . . 

7 i 

Drummers, ...... 

IOI 

Flying Dragon, .... 

72 

Black Bass, *. 

102 

The Angler,. 

73 

Giant Perch,. 

102 

White Shark,. 

73 

Long-headed Pike, . . 

103 

Great Pilgrim Shark, . . 

74 

Lump Fish,. 

103 

Basking Shark, .... 

75 

Climbing Perch, . . . 

104 

Hammerhead Shark, 

76 

Sea Barbel,. 

104 

Great Blue Shark, . . . 

76 

Growling Cock, . , 

105 

Monk Fish,. 

77 

Great Weaver, .... 

105 

Boy Bitten by a Shark, 

78 

Butterfly Fish, ... 

106 

Stomias Boa,. 

79 

Haddock,. 

106 


(9) 


PAGE 


Wolf Fish,.107 

Plaice, Flounder and Dab, 108 

Sea Horse,.108 

Horned-lrunk Fish, . . 108 

Swell Fish,.109 

Scaly Salamander, . . . 109 

Mud Fish,.no 

Eyed Pteraclis, .... in 
School of Narwhals, . . 111 

Porpoise, .n 2 

Dolphin, .112 

Sperm Whales, .... 113 

Pursuit of Sperm Whale, 113 

Sounding,.114 

Arctic Fin-whale, ... 114 
Bowhead Whale, ... 115 
A Death Wound, . . . 116 

Whale Attacked by Gram¬ 
puses, .117 

Greenland Whale, ... 118 

Hunting the Whale, . . 119 

Whale Striking a Boat, . 120 

Firing the Gun Harpoon, 121 

Manatees,.122 

Lamantin,.122 

Trunk Seal,.123 

Skull of Sea Hound, . 124 

Skull of Walrus, .... 124 

Skull of Dugong, . .124 

Young Walrus, .... 124 

Male and Female Walrus, 125 

The Morse,.126 

Hooded Seal,.127 

Home of the Seal, . . 128 

Sea Hound,.128 

Seals Alarmed, .... 129 

Fur Seal,.129 

Marbled Seal, .... 130 

Trumpet Seal.130 

REPTILES. 

Monsters of the Antedi¬ 
luvian Sea,.132 

Antediluvian Land Ani¬ 
mals, .133 

Metamorphosis of Frog, 134 
Bufo, Aqua and Pipa 

Frogs,.13S 

Green Bull-frog, ... 136 

Tree Frog,.136 

Flying Frog,.136 

















































































































IO 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Pond Frog, . 

PAGB 

137 

Horned Frog,. 

138 

Surinam Toad, . . . . 

138 

Pouch Frog,. 

139 

Rope Frog,. 

*39 

Banded Toad, . . . . 

139 

Horned Sand Toad, . . 

140 

Garden Toad,. 

140 

Three Species of Lizards 

141 

Wall Gecko,. 

142 

Flying Gecko, .... 

142 

Chameleons,. 

143 

Iguana, . 

143 

Flying Dragon, .... 

143 

Nile Monitor,. 

144 

Hedge Lizard. 

145 

Varans, two species, . . 

145 

Skink,. 

146 

Pale Snake Lizard, . . 

146 

Amphisboena,. 

146 

Seps, or Metallic Back, . 

147 

Wallowing Worm, . . . 

i 47 

Worm Snake, .... 

148 

Proteus,. 

149 

Lizards of the Steppes, . 

149 

Prilled Lizard, .... 

150 

Water Dog,. 

I 5 I 

Adult Axolotl, .... 

152 

Larva of Axolotl, . . . 

152 

Mud Eel,. 

1 53 

Giant Salamander, . . . 

153 

Stories of the Salamander, 

154 

Dotted Salamander, . . 

155 

Gila Monster,. 

156 

Skeleton of Iguanadon, . 

157 

Extinct Monsters, . . . 

158 

Battling with a Monster, 

160 

Megatherium,. 

161 

Pterodactyl,. 

162 

Skull of Teleosaurus, . . 

163 

Teleosaurus Restored, . 

163 1 

Belodon Restored, . . . 

164 

Mylodon, . 

164 

Saurians of the Ancient 


World,. 

i6 5 

Crocodiles of the Nile, . 

i6 5 

Gavial, . 

166 

Alligators,. 

167 

Harpooning an Alligator, 

i6g_^ 

An Alligator Trap, . . 

171 

Water Viper,. 

179 

Water Moccasin, . . . 

180 

Chittul Sea Snake, . . . 

181 

Yellow Sea Snake, . . 

181 

Wart Snake,. 

182 

Coral Snake,. 

182 

Anaconda,. 

183 

Ip the Toils,. 

184 

Ringed Boa,. 

185 

Dog-headed Boa, . . . 

187 

Giant Boa and Rattle- 


snake, . 

188 

Boa Crushing a Tiger, . 

189 

Python, Echidna and 


Fennec. 

190 

Boa and Rattler Compared, 

191 

Cobra de Capello, . . . 

192 

India Serpent Charmers, 

193 

Egyptian Snake Charmers, 

194 

The Hamadryas, . . . 

195 

Prairie Rattlesnake, . . 

197 

Diamond Rattlesnake, . 

199 

Massassauga Rattlesnake, 

200 


PAGB 

Fer de Lance, .... 201 


Copperhead, . •. . . . 202 
Common Viper, . . . 203 

Striped Viper,.203 

Ring-Necked Viper, . . 204 
African Puff Adder, . . 205 
Horned Viper and Jerboa, 206 
Horned Adder, .... 207 
Cow Snake Attacked by 

Birds,.209 

A Snake-eating Brazilian, 210 
Skeleton of Glyptodon, . 211 

Extinct Protostega, . . 212 
Greek Tortoise, . . . . 215 
European Marsh Turtle, 217 

Sea Tortoise,.217 

Snapping Turtle, . . . 218 

Tiger Turtle,.218 1 

Matamata,.219 

Hawk’s-bill Turtle, . . 220 J 

Green Turtle,.221 j 

Leather Turtle, .... 224 
Morass Turtle, .... 225 
Lip Turtle, ....... 225 

INSECTS. 

Harlequin Spider, . . . 228 

Cross Spider,.228 

Tongue Worms (3), . . 228 

Shell Mite,.229 

Crab Spider.229 

Ammothea,.229 

Waltz Spider,.230 

Cylindrical Spider. . . . 230 
Giant Crab Spider, . . 231 

Bush Spider,.232 

Mason Spider, .... 233 

Water Spider, .... 233 

Bird Spider, ...... 234 

India Scorpion, .... 234 

Macrobitus,.235 

Long-armed Tarentella, 235 
Demoden, ...... 235 

Millepeds, two species, . 233 1 
Spiders, three species, . 235 
Spiders, five species, . . 236 


Myriapoda, three species, 237 


Sharp-eyed Spider, . . 237 
Little Devils of Geoffroy, 

six species.237 

Ants at Play.238 

Beetles, nine species, . . 239 
Migrating Locusts, . . 240 

May Beetle,.241 

Coleoptera, three species, 243 

Potato Bugs,.244 

Tumble Bug,.244 

Flies and Beetles, ten 

species,.245 

Corn Weevil,.246 

May Bug.246 

Beetles, three species, . 247 
Flies and Fleas, six spe¬ 
cies, .248 


Grapevine Louse, ... 248 
Beetles and Spanish 
Flies, six species, . . 249 
Beetles and Flies, five 

species,.250 

Stag Beetle,.251 

Rot Flies, Metamorphosis, 252 
Common Gna f , Meta¬ 
morphosis, .253 


PACK 

Mormolyce,.254 

Hercules Bug, .... 254 
Dragon Fly, Metamor¬ 
phosis, .255 

Tsetse Fly,.256 

Admiral Butterfly, . . . 258 
Silverwing Butterfly, . . 258 
Checkered Butterfly, . . 258 
White-flecked Butterfly, 258 

Night Moth,.258 

j Aurora Butterfly, . . . 258 

Metallic-wing Butterfly, 258 
Papdio Butterfly, . . .* 259 

Apollo Butterfly, . . . 259 

Polyommatus Butterfly . 260 

Thecla Butterfly, -. . . 260 

Window Blot Butterfly, . 260 
Leaf Butterfly, .... 265 

Swallow-tail Butterfly, . 260 
Lemon Butterfly, . . . 264 
Brown Bear Moth, . . 261 
Silk Worm Moth, . . . 261 
Death’s head Moth, . . 261 
Apple Moth, . . . . 261 

Gamma Owl Moth, . . 261 
Drepar.a Moth, .... 261 

Spinning Moth.262 

Night Hawk Moth, . . 262 
Great Ice Bird Moth, . 262 
Beech Spinner Moth, . . 263 

Velvet Moth,.263 

Bee Moth,.263 

Nail-blotted Moth, . . 263 
Climbing Moth, .... 263 

Pine Moth,.263 

Clothes Moth.265 

Silk Worm,.266 

Blootf Drop Moth, . . . 267 
Linden Moth, .... 267 

Watch Moth,.267 

Flour Moth,.267 

Greenleaf Moth, .... 267 

Phryganea,.268 

Cemetery of Ants, . . . 269 
Larvae of Ants, .... 269 
Ants Fighting, .... 269 
Police Ant Making an Ar¬ 
rest.269 

Warrior Termites, . . . 270 
Immuring the Queen, . 271 
Warrior Ants Making a 

Way.271 

Termite Hills, .... 272 
Dwellings of Grass Ants, 273 
Nest of Polystractis, . . 274 
Tree Nest of Myomecodea 274 
Dwellings of Tapinoma, 275 
Interior of Ant Nest, . . 275 

BIRDS. 

The Ramphorynchus, . 277 
Position of Birds Flying, 278 
Nest of Sword-beak Hum¬ 


ming Bird,.280 

Nest of Ring neck Hum¬ 
ming Bird.281 

Nest of Emerald Hum¬ 
ming Bird.282 

Group of Humming Birds, 
five species, .... 283 
Trochilus and Curved 
Beak,.285 


PAGE 

Horned and Sparkling 

Tail,.285 

Star Throat,. 286- 

White Cap and Sun Angel 286 
Puff-leg and Scimeter Bill, 287 
Bold Honey-sucker, . . 288 
Legless Bird of Paradise, 288 
Paradise Widow, . . . 288 

Lyre Bird,.290 

Paradise Birds,fourspecies 291 
Arbor of Bower Bird, . 292 
Warbling Parakeet, . . 294 
Ringed Parakeet, . . . 295 
S. A. Gray Parrot, . . . 296 
African Gray Parrol, . . 297 
Hyacinth Parrot, . . . 298 
Ruftleneck Cockatoo, . 298 

Rose Parrot,.299 

Green Parrot,. 299- 

Owl Parrot, .300 

Blue Head Loris, . . , 300 
Great Green Macaw, . . 301 
Amazon Parrot, .... 301 
Pink Cockatoo, .... 302 
Sulphur Crested Cockatoo 303. 
Great Black Cockatoo, . 304 
Red-billed Toucan, . . 305 
Great Toucan, .... 306 
Wrinkled Horned Tou¬ 


can, . 

Bearded Cuckoo, . . . 
Almond Cuckoo, . . . 
Giant Cuckoo, .... 
Ant-eating Cuckoo, . . 

Hoopoe Bird,. 

Giant Goat-sucker, . . 
Young Night Swallow, . 
Fallow Swallow, . . . 
Crested Swallow, . . . 
Barn Swallow, .... 
Edible Swallows’ Nests, 

Parrot Dove. 

Turtle Dove. 

Crested Dove, .... 

Maned Dove,. 

Crowned Dove, .... 
Ringed and Rock Doves, 
Toothed Pigeon, . . . 
Passenger Pigeon, . . . 
Nest of Halcyon Bird, . 

Bee Eater,. 

Puffin, or Sea Parrot, . . 

Bell Bird,. 

Nest of the Canary, . . 

Starling,. 

Cross-bill. 

Snow and Goldfinch, 
Group of Finches, five 

species,. 

Raven and Magpie, . . 
Blackbird and Nightin¬ 
gale. 

Brown Thrush, .... 
Nest of Baltimore Oriole, 
Wall Creeper, .... 
Nut Cracker and Acorn 

Bird,. 

Saffron Finch, .... 
Group of Titmice, eight 

species,. 

Nest of Cape Titmouse, 
Nest of Penduline Tit- 


307 

307 

308 
30S 

309 

309 

310 

3 11 
3 “ 

312 
312 

3*3 

3 i 4 

3 H 

3 1 4 

3 1 5 
3 i 5 

3 1 5 
3*6 

316 

3*9 

320 

321 

324 

325 

320 

326 

327 

328 

329 

329 

330 

331 

332 

333 

333 

334 

335 


mouse, 


oA 














































































































337 

338 

338 

338 

338 

338 

339 

34f> 

340 

342 

342 

343 

344 

344 

346 

347 

348 

349 

35o 

35i 

352 

353 

355 

356 

357 

358 

359 

361 

361 

362 

363 

363 

363 

363 

364 

365 

365 

366 

367 

367 

367 

368 

369 

370 

37i 

37i 

372 

372 

373 

373 

374 

374 

375 

375 

375 

375 

376 

377 

377 

377 

378 

379 

380 

381 

382 

382 

383 

383 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 

Cranes on Victoria Regia, 384 
German Stork, .... 384 
Storks Assembling, . . 385 
Whale head Stork, . . 386 

Stork’s Nest,.386 

Marsh Birds,.387 

Adjutant,.387 

African Marsh Birds, . 388 

Sacred Ibis,.389 

Scarlet Ibis,.389 

Cobbler’s Awl Bird, . . 390 

Curlew, ..390 

Egyptian ibis, .... 390 

Whimbrel,.391 

Snipe Carrying her Young 391 
Golden Plover, .... 392 
Woodcock and Young, . 392 

Ruff,. 393 

Spoonbill Snipe, . . . 393 

Gold Piper,.394 

Oyster Catcher, .... 394 
Pebble Turner, .... 394 
Irish Sanderling, . . . 395 
Scabbard Bill, .... 395 

Shade Bird,.396 

Seriema,..306 

Sultan Hen.397 

Water Rail.307 

Peewit, ....... 397 

Wild Goose,.399 

Cape Barron Goose, . . 399 
Gray Log Goose, . . . 399 
White Swan, ..... 400 

Black Swan.400 

Cormorant, . . . . . . 401 
Duck Goose, ..... 401 
Goose Sawyer, .... 401 
Fishing with Cormorants, 402 
English Water Hens, . 403 
American Water Hen, . 403 
Nest of the Water Hen, 404 
Mallard Duck, .... 405 

Wood Duck,.405 

Mandarin Duck, . . . 405 

Eider Duck. 405 

Spectacled Eider Duck, . 406 
Piping Duck, ..... 406 

Teal Duck, .407 

Crested Grebe, .... 407 
Golden Grebe, .... 408 
Floating Nests of Little 

Grebes,.408 

City of Crested Gorfou, . 409 
Spectacled Auk, . . . 410 
Giant Penguin, . . . . 410 
Great Auks, . . . . . 411 

Penguins,.411 

Razor Bird,.412 

Tropic and Frigate Birds, 413 

Pelicans.413 

Tropic Bird Robbing a 

Booby,.414 

Booby,.414 

Sea Swallows Helping a 

Mate,.415 

Giant Gull,.416 

Great Black-backed Gull, 416 
Albatross and Golden Di¬ 
vers,.417 

Birds of Tireless Wing, . 417 
Owl Attacked by a Weasel, 418 
Lemmings Pursued by 
Owls,.418 


PAGE 


Horned Owl,.419 

Forest and Screech Owl, 420 
Nest of Burrowing Owl. . 421 
Barn Owl and Nest, . . 421 

Snowy Owl,.422 

Veiled Owl, ...... 422 

Secretary Bird.422 

The Night Marauder, . 423 
The First Lesson, . . . 424 

Falcon Seizing a Hare, . 424 
Sparrow Hawk, .... 424 
Hawk Pursuing a Hare, 424 

Fish Hawk,.425 

Windhover,.426 

Gerfalcon,.426 

Falcon Training, . . . 427 

Osprey,.427 

Chicken Hawk, .... 428 
Speckled Buzzard, . . . 428 

Kingly Milan,.428 

Wandering Falcon, . . 428 
Falcon Striking a Bittern, 429 
Goshawk and Nest, . . 430 
Falcon, with and without 

Hood,.431 

Claws and Skull of Eagle, 431 

Bald Eagle,.432 

Eagle Carrying off a Girl, 433 
Fight with an Eagle, . . 434 
Eagles of Switzerland, . 435 

Golden Eagle.436 

Eagle of the Steppes, • 437 

Cathartes Urubu, . . . 437 

King of Vultures, . . . 437 

Great Vulture of the An¬ 
des, .438 

Egyptian Vulture, . . . 439 

Vultures, three species, . 439 

Condor,.440 

Bearded and Monk’s- 
gown Vulture, ... 441 

Alpine Condors, . . . 442 

Great Apteryx.443 

Skeleton of Dinornis, . 443 
Foot of the Ostrich, . . 444 
Ostrich Running, . . . 446 

Kiwi,.447 

Emeu,. 448 

Rhea and Young, . . . 449 

Cassowary,.450 

Helmeted Cassowary, . 451 


BATS AND MAMMALS. 

Heads of Egyptian Bats, 
three species, .... 
Moss-nosed Bat, .... 

Early Morning Bat, . . 
Long-eared Bat, .... 
Long-winged Bat. . . . 

Gray Clap-nosed Bat, 

Flying Fox,. 

Horse-shoe Bat, .... 
American Bat, ... 
Nycturus of Egypt, . . 

Vampire,. 

Attacked by Vampires, . 
Colugo with Young, . . 

Duck Mole and Nest . . 
Urchin and Duck Mole, 
Porcupine Echidna, . . 
Echidna and Duck Mole, 
Merlin’s (extinct) Opos¬ 
sum, . 


Crab-eating Opossum, . 
Common Opossum, . . 
Broad-nosed Wombat, . 
Large-browed Wombat, . 
Australian Bear, .... 

Phalanger,. 

Flying Ariel. 

Tasmanian Wolf, . . . 
Mountain Kangaroo, . . 
Banded Bandicoot. . . . 
Long-nosed Bandicoot, . 
Brush Kangaroo, . . . 
Giant Kangaroo, . . . 
Hunting Kangaroo with 
the Boomerang, . . . 
Zebra Wolves Pursuing a 

Kangaroo,. 

Banded Ant-eater, . . . 

Zebra Wolf,. 

Tasmanian Devil, . . . 
Zebra Wolves Hunting, . 

Dasyure,. 

Nine banded Armadillo, 

Pichicaiago,. 

Ai and Unau. 

Giant Armadillo, . . . 
Two-toed Sloth, .... 
Great Ant Bear, • • . . 
Ant-eater and Armadillo, 
Long-tailed Manis, . . 
Ant-eater in Attitude of 

Defence,. 

Aard^vark,. 

Earth Hog and Nest, . . 
Alpine Marmot, .... 

Bobacs,. 

Colorado Marmot, . . . 
Arctic Marmot, .... 
European Marmot, . . 

Prairie Dogs,. 

Beavers Building a Dam, 
Tree Porcupine, .... 

Capybara,. 

European Hedgehog, . . 
Patagonian Cavy, . . . 
Agouti and Capybara, . 

Striped Paca,. 

Agouti,. 

Common Porcupine, . . 
Kangaroo Rat, .... 

Skunk, . 

Jerboa. 

Lemmings,. 

Bamboo Rat,. 

Hamster and Lemmings, 
Short-tailed Mouse, . . 

Field Mice,. 

Musk-rat,. 

Animals of Borneo, . . 

Mole,. 

Section of Mole’s Nest, . 
Indian Tupaia, .... 
Elephant Shrew, . . . 
European Shrew, . . . 
Shrew Mouse, .... 
Tanrec Hedgehog, . . 
Skeleton of Mastodon, . 
Mammoth Discovered in 

Siberia,. 

Skull of Dinotherium, . 
Skeleton of Mammoth, . 
Mammoth Restored, . . 
Head of African Elephant, 


453 

454 

454 

455 
455 

455 

456 

456 

457 

457 

458 

459 
459 

463 

464 

464 

465 


466 


II 


PAGE 

467 

467 

468 

468 

469 

469 

470 

470 

471 

471 

472 

473 

473 

474 

474 

475 

475 

476 

477 

477 

478 

479 

480 

481 

481 

482 

482 

483 

484 

485 

486 

492 

493 

494 

494 

495 

495 

496 

497 

497 

498 

499 

500 

501 

502 

503 
5°4 
5°4 
5°7 

508 

509 
5*o 
5** 
512 

5*3 

5i5 

5i7 

5*7 

5*9 

520 

520 

521 

521 

527 

528 

528 

529 

53° 

53* 









































































































1 2 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 


Elephant Defending its 

Young,.532 

Tiger-hunting with Ele¬ 
phants, .533 

Herd of Asiatic Elephants, 535 
Elephants in Service, . . 536 
An Elephant Fight, . . 537 
Asiatic Elephants Sport¬ 
ing. .538 

A Head Shot,.539 

Skeleton of Brontosaurus, 540 
Beast of the Coal Period, 541 
Battle between Elephant 
and Rhinoceros, . . . 542 

Conies.543 

Skeleton of Phenacodus, 544 

Tapir,.545 

Hunter Attacked by a 
Rhinoceros, .... 546 
Indian Rhinoceros, . . 547 
Rhinoceroses Fighting, . 548 
A Running Fight, . . . 549 


Head of Indian Rhinoce¬ 
ros, . 

Keitloa,. 

Rhinoceros Hunter, . . 
An Unprovoked Attack, 
Rhinoceros Fight, . . . 
Pursued by a Rhinoceros, 
A Shot at Close Quarters, 
The Fallen Monarch, . 
Skull of Primitive Horse, 
Tarpan, or Wild Horse, 
Wild Asses of Thibet, . 
African Wild Ass, . . . 
Daw and Quagga, . . . 

The Zebra. 

Vlacke Vark,. 

Wild Boar Beset by Dogs, 
Caledonian Boar Hunt, . 

Babyrousa,. 

Wild Boars Devouring a 

Deer. 

Peccary, \. 

Hippopotamus, .... 
Attacked by Hippopota¬ 
mus, . 

Hippopotamus Trap, . . 
Hunting the Hippo, . . 
Capturing a Hippo, . . 
Hippo and Young, . . 
Dromedary and Bactrian 

Camel,. 

The Llama,. 

Condors attacking Vicu¬ 
gnas, . 

Wolves Attacking a Cari¬ 
bou, . 

A Fight to the Death, . 
Canadian Lynx and Moose 
Hunting the Moose by 

Night,. 

Moose,. 

Roebuck, . 

Red Deer, ...... 

A Savage Pursuit, . . . 


Fallow Deer,. 

Reindeer,. 

The Moose Hunters, . . 
Reindeer Sleigh, . . . 

Musk Deer. 

Group of Giraffes, . . . 
North American Buffalo, 
Yak and Big-horned 

Sheep,. 

African Sauga, .... 
The Indian Yak, . . . 
Gored by a Buffalo, . . 
Battle between Leopard 
and Buffalo, .... 
Adventure with a Cape 

Buffalo,. 

Battle between Buffalo and 

Grizzly,. 

A Fight in the Forest, . 
Hunting the Musk Ox, . 
Eland of the Steppes, 
African Eland, .... 
Striped Antelope, . . . 
Abyssinian Beisa, . . . 
Heads of African Ante¬ 
lopes (6),. 

Gazelles and Beisas, . . 
Wild Dogs Pursuing an 

Antelope. 

Herd of African Ante¬ 
lopes, . 

Blesboks. 

Springboks, . 

Saiga Antelope, .... 

Antelope,. 

Waterboks,. 

Gazelles Opposing a Leo¬ 
pard, . 

Chamois, . 

Chamois Defending Its 

Young,. 

Gnus,. 

Alpine Ibex, ..... 
Himalayan Ibex, . . . 

Mouflon,. 

Maned Goat. 

Turkish Sheep, .... 
Head of Merino, . . . 

Musk Sheep. 

Wild Mountain Goat, . 
Sheep Plunging over Pre¬ 
cipice, . 

Hunting Mountain Sheep, 
A Coaiti Family, . . . 
Spotted Paradoxure, . . 

Sloth Bear,. 

Brown Bear. 

Cinnamon Bear, .... 
The Bear Hunt, .... 
Bear with His Spoils, 

Polar Bear,. 

Arctic Bear and Walruses, 
Polar Bear and Cubs, . . 
Attacked by a Polar Bear, 
North American Otter, . 


55 ° 

551 

552 

553 

554 

555 

555 

55 6 

557 
557 
55 * : 

559 

560 

560 

561 

562 

563 

564 

5 6 4 

565 

567 

568 

569 
57 ° 

57 1 

572 

573 

574 

575 

576 

577 

578 

578 

579 

579 

580 

581 


PAGE 

582 

European Otter, .... 

PAGE 

62.6 

582 

Otters Fishing, .... 

627 

583 

European Badger, . . . 

628 

584 

American Badger, . . . 

629 

58 .S 

American Wolverine, 

629 

586 

Glutton,. 

630 

587 

Tibeth and Tayra, . . . 

631 


Ermine and Sable Marten 

632 

588 

Pine Marten,. 

632 

589 

Sable and Marten in Win 


589 

ter Fur,. 

633 

59 ° 

Pennant Marten, . . . 

633 


Silver Fox, . 

634 

59 i 

Fennecs,. 

634 


Otocyon, . 

634 

592 

Blue Arctic Fox, . . . 

635 


American Fox, .... 

636 

593 

Fox Carrying His Prey, 

636 

594 

A Fox Family, .... 

6 37 

595 

Jackal, . 

638 

596 

Wolf and Young, . . . 

638 

596 

Coyote,. 

639 

597 

Gray Wolf,. 

f >39 

597 

Wolves on the Hunt, . . 

640 


Hyena Hounds in Pursuit 

641 

598 

African Wild Dog, . . . 

641 

599 

Jackals Robbing a Grave, 

642 


Hyena Hound, .... 

642 

599 

Australian Dingo, . . . 

643 


Dingo, . 

643 

600 

Hyena Hounds Baying a 


600 

Leopard, . 

644 

602 

Wild Dog,. 

644 

603 

Striped Hyena, .... 

645 

603 

Spotted Hyena, .... 

645 

604 

Hyenas of Sahara, . . . 

646 


African Civet, .... 

647 

605 

Blotched Genet, .... 

647 

605 

Malabar Civet, .... 

648 


Foussa,. 

648 

606 

Take Care ! . 

650 

607 

King of the Jungle, . . 

651 

608 

Lion Seizing a Buffalo, . 

652 

609 

Lion Attacking a Giraffe, 

653 

609 

Feeding Christians to the 


610 

Lions,. 

654 

611 

The Great Jungle Cat, . 

655 

612 

Tiger and Young . . . 

656 

612 

Tiger Stalking His Prey, 

657 

613 

A Man Eater, . . . . 

657 


Tigers before Their Lair, 

658 

614 

Hunters Attacked by 


6 i 5 

Leopards,. 

658 

616 

Wild Chetah,. 

659 

617 

African Leopard, . . . 

6 59 

618 

Ingwe,. 

6 59 

619 

Leopard and its Prey, 

660 

620 

Trained Chetah, . . . 

660 

621 

Jaguar Watching for Prey 

661 

622 

Mexican Jaguar, . . . 

661 

623 

Jaguar Fishing, .... 

662 

623 

South American Puma, . 

662 

624 

California Lion, .... 

663 

625 

Texas Puma,. 

663 

626 

Ounce,. 

664 


PAGE 


Serval, .664 

Marbled Cat.665 

Tortoise-shell Tiger, . . 665 
European Wild Cat, . . 665 

Egyptian Cat,.665 

Texas Wild Cat, . . . 666 


Wild Cat Stalking a Fawn 666 


Wild Cat of Western 

States, . 

European Lynx, . . . . 
Skeleton of Giant Ape, . 
Chimpanzee Eating with 

Spoon, • . 

Mormoset,. 

Indri,. 

Crowned Lemur, . . . 
Ruffled Lemur, .... 

Maki-macoa,. 

Mongoos,. 

Slender Loris, .... 
Bear Macaque, .... 
Galago, ....... 

Tarsier,. 

Aye aye,. 

Mormosets,. 

Night Monkey, .... 
Roaring Monkey, . . . 

Brazilian Titi,. 

Bearded Saki, .... 
Black Howler, .... 
Ursine Howlers, .... 
Hairy Howlers, .... 
Catching Monkeys, . . 
Preaching Monkeys, . . 
Capuchin Monkey, . . 
Negro Monkey, .... 

Spider Coaita,. 

Mandrill, ...... 

Baboon, . 

Group of Baboons, . . 
Crested Baboons, . . . 

Macaques,. 

Hamadryas,. 

Gelada,. 

Green Monkeys, . . . 

Colobus,. 

Proboscis Monkey, . . . 
Gibbon and Hoonuman, 

Gibbon, . 

Orang-outang, . 

Hunting the Oran, . . . 
Monkey Hands and Feet, 
Capturing an Orang, . . 
Family of Chimpanzees, 
Positions of Orang when 

Walking. 

Skeleton of Gorilla, . . 

Male Gorilla,. 

Male Gorilla Alarmed, . 
Gorilla in Retreat, . . . 
Female Gorilla and Young 
Male Gorilla Covering 

Retreat,. 

Young Gorilla Walking 
on blind Legs, . . . 


-6 67 
667 

667 

668 
670 

670 

671 

672 

672 

673 

673 

674 

675 

676 

677 

678 

679 

680 

680 

681 

681 

682 

682 

683 

684 

685 

686 

687 

688 
689 

689 

690 

691 

692 

6 93 
695 

698 

699 

700 

701 

7 °3 
704 
704 

7°5 

706 

707 

708 

709 
709 

709 

710 

711 

712 



















































































































, ■ ......... , 





&38R 


VI L CO. Ul^rl. PH II. A 


WONDERFUL FISHES OF THE SEA 































THE LIVING WORLD 


THE BIRTH OF SPECIES. 


ATURAL HISTORY, in its largest sense, treats of all 
things in nature the animate and inanimate, the 
dynamics or forces, structure of the earth, conditions, 
mutations, and, in short, all the operative forces of 
physics, as well as the habits, character, organism and 
species of animal life. It is therefore a most compre¬ 
hensive subject, and consequently one divisible into 
numerous branches for distinct consideration, compass¬ 
ing fields for research so extensive that no single 
book can contain an exhaustive treatise on all the 
products therein. For these reasons I have chosen to con¬ 
fine myself in this work to a description of that particular 
/ branch of Natural History (Zoology,) which treats of the 
animal life on our planet, with only incidental references, 
as occasions seem to require, to the multitudes of plant, 
minute insect and infusorial life. I speak here of such 
references rather to acquaint the reader with a most inter¬ 
esting, because least understandable, fact, viz.: that the 
line of separation between vegetable and animal life is so 
indistinct that it is doubtful if the demarcation has yet 
been discovered. The development of microscopic life from decaying vegetation 
is scarcely so singular as the truth that many of the infusoria, or microscopic 
creatures, partake of a double nature, retaining semblances of vegetation while 
possessing functions of motion and digestion which characterize the animal. 
This subject, however, leads so directly to evolution and into metaphysics, 
that the general reader will feel no regrets that I have not claimed the space 
and patience to pursue its discussion here. 

Though our subject is vast in magnitude, every step is one of extra¬ 
ordinary interest, unfolding new beauties and startling wonders with the 
introduction of each species, and raising our minds from a contemplation 
of these mysteries of nature to a reverential, worshipful feeling for Him who has 
, scattered with omnipotent hand the myriads of creatures conceived and created 
for the peopling of our world. While our hearts are lifted up in grateful 
acknowledgment to the Creator, and our minds are filled with astonishment 
at the variety, structure and number of creatures that fill the sea, becloud the 
sky and make the earth a very hive of restless animates, we cannot avoid 
contemplating the world as it existed before the “Spirit of God moved upon. 

(13) 

















i 4 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


the face of the waters;” before the vapors had condensed; before the great 
furnace (the sun) of the sky had been started, to set a myriad of worlds in 
motion, singing measureless praises round the circle of infinite space, and in 
glad hallelujahs of trembling light. With equal wonder we strive to conceive 
our planet as it appeared fresh from the Creator’s hands, with water every¬ 
where abounding and life in its every wave, and try vainly to imagine the 
condition of creation when the waters were gathered together in one place, 
and the dry land appeared carpeted with the Edenic flora, and everywhere, 
in water, land and sky, multiplied species revelled in proud ecstasy of being. 

While it is not given us to know all that our longing minds perpetually 
try to prefigure, with similitudes by which we are surrounded, imagination 
is powerfully reenforced by the glimpses which we take of the inconceivably 



FISHES OF THE SILURIAN AGE. 


remote past through a study of comparative zoology and analogy. And in 
the beginning it may be well to announce, without inviting polemical 
discussion, that the Genetic, or scriptural, account of creation is in complete 
accord with the revelations of geology, a knowledge of which serves to confirm 
the truth of what the inspired writer recorded with an exactness that 
removes every doubt as to the source from whence the information emanated. 
Every evidence uncovered by the pick of the geologist, and every discovery 
made by the search of the palaeonlotogist have conjunctively established the long 
disputed theory of the gradual unfolding and development of creation. As the 
flower bursts from the bud, and as the perfect creature has its growth 
from an egg, so has the world attained its present condition by continuous 
development. With God a day is as a thousand years, and a thousand 















THE LIVING WORLD. 


*5 


years is as a day, hence who shall make so bold as to declare that the 
six so-called days of creation constituted a period of one hundred and 
forty-four hours of time as we now measure it? Even within the compara¬ 
tively recent records of history the length of the day has been computed 
differently, and in the original Hebrew, in which Genesis was written, the 
term translated as day may also mean period. The order in which God spoke 
creation is proven by such evidence as the eternal rocks, and conforms exactly with 
the records of Genesis, a thing most surprising if we reject the claim of 
inspiration; but by every test which scientists are able to apply, this corrobor¬ 
ation is full and complete, if we but use the term period where that of day is 
employed, a substitution which every theologian has agreed to. 

Proceeding therefore upon the theory explained, and which every 
investigator heartily endorses, we may briefly consider some of the primitive 
forms of animal life that existed before man was created. We are able to 
determine what much of this life was by the discovery of fossil remains which 
everywhere abound as will now be explained, preliminary to the introduction 
of those forms now existent, and in which our chief interest must lie. 


FOSSIL REMAINS OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. 

The term fossil is used by geologists, in a restricted sense, to designate the 
petrified remains of animals or plants, which we find in abundance de¬ 
posited, most probably, in the order of their extinction. These fossils serve to 
conclusively show that God must have created different species of both animals 
and plants at widely different periods. In many instances it has been shown 
that one order, or species, existed for a long space of time and then became 
extinct before a new order succeeded. This is most surprising, but none the less 
true. It is also well demonstrated that many of these successive orders appeared 
and * passed out of existence in which vast periods of time must have elapsed, 
before man was created. As man is the most perfect of God’s creatures, it is 
but the natural sequence of gradual development that he should be the last to 
appear, as the flower does not burst full-blown at once, but passes first through 
many changes and gradual^ opens from the bud. W hen the master-piece . of 
God’s work was given to have dominion over the earth and every living thing 
thereon we are prepared to believe that the world had passed through very 
numerous and surprising changes. The igneous rocks, vitrified, or glazed by 
the action of fire in some cases, and left in the form of tufa, pumice or basalt 
in others, attest the fact that at one time the earth must have been enveloped 
in flames’, under whose effect it underwent many changes, which now afford 
proof of design, being as they are, evidences of the establishment of an order of 
things adapted to the predetermined nature of that perfect creature about to be 
sent to exercise dominion over the living creatures that preceded him. By the 
same evidences we learn that before man was ushered into being the distribution 
of water on our planet was very different from the present m that where 
continents now exist, there was at one time a great ocean, and where now the 
sea rolls in perpetual unrest, was once immense bodies of land, if not continents. 
The great vallevs and cleavages through mountains are the imprints of ocean s 
fingers or beds ~ of what were once fresh-water lakes. Such wonderful changes 
of surface of course produced corresponding changes of climate; for as the 
mountains uprose they formed new water-sheds and affected the temperature no 


i6 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


less signally, while the disappearance of vast bodies of water in one place and 
their reappearance in another would certainly be followed by pronounced changes 
of climate. This fact, taken in connection with the many fossil remains 
examined, prove that a tropical temperature once prevailed in the highest 
latitudes. In Greenland we find fossil remains of tropical plants and animals, 
while Northern Siberia yields innumerable evidences that over its now barren 
and ice-covered shores and plains once roamed vast herds of such equatorial 
animals as the elephant, rhinoceros and hippopotamus, which were probably 
destroyed by a sudden change of temperature during what is called the Glacial 
Period, about which, however, little is definitely known. 

The fossil remains which we find most plentiful are those of marine species, 
because of their greater numbers and more regular deposition at the bottom of 



FOSSII, remains of the earliest species of mollusks. 


the sea. Those which are most commonly met 
are given in this work, include 
" Shells. 

Corals and sponges. 
Radiated animals, star fishes 
Bodies belonging I Reptiles, saurian species. 
to the sea. | Fishes of great variety. 
Whales. 

Lobsters, crabs, mollusks. 
Water plants. 


with, and of which illustrations 


ammonites, sea urchins, etc. 


Bodies belonging 
to the land. 


Fresh-water shells. 

Garden snail. 

Quadrupeds. 

- Reptiles, several varieties, of monster size. 
Birds. 

Insects. 

_ Trees. 












THE LIVING WORLD. 


17 


It is interesting to note some of the curious forms, of which pictures are 
herewith given, and observe how closely allied to these extinct species are 
many of the salt water creatures of our time. It is important that this analogy 



should be kept in mind in order that the connecting links between succeeding 
orders may be more clearly perceived. 

HOW NEW FORMS CAME INTO EXISTENCE. 

The fossil remains spoken of were not found in indiscriminate deposition 
through the secondary and tertiary stratas; on the other hand, some were 
obtained from the lowest beds, others from the intermediate, while several were 
found in the superior strata. But all, of whatever description they may be, 
which occur in the secondary strata , belong to species now wholly extinct. 
By far the greatest proportion of those found in the tertiary strata belong like¬ 
wise to extinct species. It is only in the uppermost beds that there is any 
very considerable number of individuals which are identical with animals now 
in existence, and there they preponderate over the others. 

The bones of man are not more liable to decay than those of other animals; 
but in no part of the earth to which the researches of geologists have extended, 
has there been found a single fragment of bone, belonging to the human 
species, incased in stone, or in any of those accumulations of gravel and loose 
materials which form the upper part of the series of the strata. Human bones 
have been occasionally met with in stones formed by petrifying processes now 
going on, and in caves, associated with the bones of other animals; but 
these are deposits possessing characteristics which prove them to have been of 
recent origin, as compared with even the most modern of the tertiary strata. 

All the solid strata which abound in animal remains are either limestones, 
or contain a large proportion of lime in their composition. Many thick beds 
of • clay also abound in them; but in that case limestone in some form or other 


2 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


18 


is generally associated with the clay. From this it has been inferred, and not 
without a strong semblance of probability, that animals have mainly contributed 



FOSSII. SEA HEDGE-HOG, FROM THE UPPER STRATA OF TIME FORMATION. 


to the formation of many limestone strata, in the same way as we see them 
now at work forming vast limestone rocks in-the coral reefs of the Pacific Ocean. 
We find in the lowest beds of the series of the secondary strata that the 

organic remains consist chiefly 
of corals and shells; that is, 
of animals having a compara¬ 
tively simple anatomical struc¬ 
ture, and that as we ascend in 
the series, the proportion of 
animals of more complicated 
forms increases, the bones of 
land quadrupeds being almost 
entirely confined to the more 
recent members of the tertiary 
strata. From these circum¬ 
stances, it is a 
received opin¬ 
ion among cer¬ 
tain geologists 
that the first 
animals which 
were created 
were of an ex¬ 
ceedingly sim¬ 
ple structure, 
that they 
gradually be- 
c a m e more 

MODERN SEA HEDGE-HOGS {Echinus delalandi). primary shew.. Complex in 

their frame, 

and that at last the highly complicated mechanism of the human body was the 
completion of those repeated efforts of nature towards perfection. It has been 








THE LIVING WORLD. 


19 

further maintained that there has been an uninterrupted succession in the 
animal kingdom effected by means of generation, from the earliest ages of 
the world to the present day; that new species and transformations have 
been gradually produced by the growth of new parts, originating from certain 
efforts -of the animal to fulfil particular instincts, such as the foot of a bird 
becoming webbed from repeated efforts to swim; and that the ancient animals 
which we find in a fossil state, however different in structure they may be, 
were in fact the ancestors of those now living. 

In the theories here advanced, I claim no originality, as the facts thus 
briefly stated constitute a highway over which many writers have preceded me. 
But they are always interesting and instructive, and I have used them in order 
to more clearly, define the plan upon which the Living World has been con¬ 
structed, iu which respect there is a departure from the basis of all other natural 
histories that I have consulted. I beg especially to refer the reader to the 
Introduction, in which I have endeavored to explain, generally, the objects 
and basis of this work, and which will be serviceable to the reader to know. 



fossil moll cjs k from Silurian strata {Slimonia acuminated). 

Having thus hastily glanced at the primitive condition of the globe and the 
probable mutations through which it has passed, my purpose now is to describe, 
as best I can, the animal life with which we are most familiar, using the word 
animal in a specific sense, to designate creatures that have powers of locomotion 
and sensibility highly developed, as contradistinguished from what is called the 
protozoan, or lowest order of animal creation. Nor do I esteem it as being of 
practical importance to include in this work descriptions of such animals of 
minute size as are rarely met with, but rather to confine myself to those 
creatures, the nobler animals, that subserve a useful purpose in the economy 
of nature most readily comprehensible by the mind of the average reader and 
thinker. But having in view the idea of acquainting my readers, by practical 
illustration, with the theory of the development of species, I have thought it 
appropriate to include here, in the early pages of this work, descriptions of 
some of the representative types of the lower orders of creation, by which it 
will be more readily discovered upon what hypothesis the theory of development 
is based. Passing over, therefore, microscopic organism, we reach the clasf; 
roming thereafter which has been called, though not with any definiteness, 


20 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


Mollusca , a term meaning without shell , i. e., soft, fleshy, from the Latin mollis , 
soft. The term is misleading, for if literally correct, man himself would be 
so classed. A better definition, if not a more suitable term is, an order of 
invertebrates, or creatures having no backbone, and apparently without joints, 
with feet and locomotive powers usually located at or near the head. This 
definition needs qualification in that several of the species are protected by a 
shell covering, such as the oyster, mussel, snail, nautilus and others, but this* 
protection in most cases may be cast and is therefore not a part of the animal 
itself. 

Of the order of Mollusca, or Mollusks, there are two subdivisions, known 
as the Mollusca Ordinaire , or common mollusks, and the Anthoid Mollusks ; in 
the former being four, and in the latter five classes, which are again divisible 
into no less than fifty species, some of which we shall notice. 

So widely different, not only in appearance, but habits as well, are the' 
several species of mollusks, that while some are most useful, as articles 

of food for man, and others yielding pearls 
of great beauty and value, there are not a 
few species that by their wonderful labors 
become sources of extreme danger, and 
more than counteract the good of their 
more useful cousins. 

The Teredo, or ship worm , which be¬ 
longs to this order, penetrates the largest 
ship timbers, and with constantly vora¬ 
cious appetite, and increase of numbers, 
not infrequently reduces them to a mere 
shell, and imperils the ship’s safety. 

The teredo , though called the ship- 
worm , from the siphons which compose its 
soft part, is really a bivalve. It is as de¬ 
structive to wood-work as the Termite Ant, 
but on the other hand its method of boring 
is said to have suggested to Brunei the 
idea and the method of tunnelling the river Thames. Thus it appears that 
while the sluggard is admonished to go to the ant, most creatures, even those 
too insignificant to be of much promise, may have practical lessons to teach 
as well as the equally valuable lesson of religious morality. 

The Lithophytes, or stone borers , not only work their way into solid rock, 
eroding a passage by constant application of a rough sole with which they are 
provided, but often concentrate in such numbers, and become so densely inter¬ 
twined and strongly attached to the rocks, that they occasionally form reefs 
large enough to block up the entrance to harbors. They are fortunately not 
widely distributed, being confined to the Torrid Zone, and most common in the 
Pacific Ocean. 

The Coral Workers, known to science as polypes, and also as anthozoaires , 
or flower animals, though so small as to be imperceptible to the unassisted eye, 
perform more surprising wonders and create more deadly perils to ships. Their 
amazing fecundity, and even more remarkable adaptation, enables them to 
perform the most prodigious labors, in comparison with which man, with all his 



teredo, or ship worm (Teredo fatalis ). 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


21 


"boasted skill, pales into insignificance. Artisans and engineers as they are, the 
polypes build up from the greatest ocean depths, with matter either secreted 
from their minute bodies or gathered from the waves, mammoth structures cf 
adamantine coral upon which the strongest ships frequently rush, unaware of 
danger until the shivering shock and wreck is at hand. These 
dangerous, though beautiful, structures rise from upheavals of more 
than a thousand fathoms and extend occasionally hundreds of 
miles, with their apexs sometimes a few feet below the ocean sur¬ 
face, and again scarcely level with high tide. These thus become 
dreadful snares for ships, but benefit sometimes results, for upon 
the reefs thus formed seeds scattered by strong winds, or borne 
thither by birds, find lodgment and, even without evidence of soil, 
take root. Sand also accumulates thereon from the restless sea 
waves, until an island is the result, when rich vegetation is ger¬ 
minated, and at length the land thus made becomes habitable. 

Some of the more common types of mollusks are admirably 
illustrated in the accompanying engravings, to which both the 
common and scientific names are attached. Nearly all these crea¬ 
tures are hab¬ 
itants of the 
tropics or 
semi-tropics, 
where they are found in al¬ 
most endless variety. The 
shells found so plentifully 
strewn along the beach, 
washed up by every flow¬ 
ing tide, are all represen¬ 
tatives of the large mol- 
lusk family, some of which 
are of extinct species, whose 
abodes have survived the 
many destructive influences 
of vast periods of time to 
remind us of the marvel¬ 
lous changes that have, oc¬ 
curred in the progression 
towards higher forms of life. 

Passing thus superficially 
over the species pretty gen¬ 
erally known, and to which 
comparatively small interest can attach, we come to the larger and most important 
class' known as the Cephalopoda , a term used to denote a peculiarity of this class, 
which have their tentacles, or more properly feet, arranged in a circle about the head, 
as may be seen in the illustration. Of this class there are several species, among 
which are numbered some of the most beautiful of sea creatures. We have first the 
Argonauta, or Nautilus , the former appellation being derived from the crea¬ 
ture’s habit of lying upon the surface of the sea and being propelled by the 
wind, while its tentacles hang down on either side in fanciful resemblance to 



stone borers (Pholas daclylus). 



WOOD BORER. 
(Pholadi). 











22 THE LIVING WORLD. 

oars. Thus it was likened to the fabled Argo and her precious cargo. The 
latter name, nautilus , was applied because of the frailty of the shell. This little 


animal is both dainty and exquisitely beautiful, on account of which it has 
been made the theme of many poets, who liken it unto an animated ocean idyl. 


SPECIMENS OE SEA-URCHINS TAKEN FROM THE CHALK FORMATION. 


















THE LIVING WORLD. 


23 


The argonaut does not depend wholly upon favoring winds to propel him whither 
he wishes to go, if, indeed, he ever relies on the wind except when he wishes to 
ride listlessly. His proper mode of locomotion is by withdrawing himself par¬ 
tially within his shell, and then driving himself swiftly backward by forcing a 
strong stream of water through a siphon appendage with which he is provided, 
and is thus propelled by the reaction. It can also creep, though slowly, along 
the ocean bottom, where it is most frequently found attached to stones by its 
tentacles, which are provided with very powerful suckers. In size it rarely 
exceeds three or four inches in diameter. It has the power to leave its shell 
at will, though this privilege is very 
rarely exercised, and never without 
some exciting cause. It subsists off 
the smaller polyps , especially the 
coral-worm. 

The Pacific Ocean has been a 
veritable wonderland from the mo¬ 
ment when, in 1513, as our school 
geographies tell us, Vasco Nunez 
de Balboa saw it from Darien, and 
from the time—only seven or eight 
years later—when Magellan gave to 
it a place among human habitations 
and a name. The very meagreness 
of our acquaintance with it, as com¬ 
pared with our knowledge of the 
Atlantic, has possibly added to the 
glamour of the sea whose Golden 
Gate at San Francisco is known by 
experience to the countless throngs 
which now crowd their way to the 
coast so celebrated, and which is each 
day contributing more and more to 
the variety and excellence of our 
markets. Not that, as in the tropics, 
the luxuriance of nature has dwarfed 
the useful energies of man ; for while 
we remember the benefactions of 
Stanford and Lick, and others who the nautilus. 

have accepted the responsibilities as 

well as the opportunities of great wealth; while readers continue to enjoy the 
inimitable products of the pen of Bret Harte; so long as lovers of wit and 
humor retain an acquaintance with Phcenixiana; until we lose all recollection of 
the audacious courage and indomitable persistence of those who conceived and exe¬ 
cuted the magical enterprise of connecting the Atlantic and the Pacific, and 
making what was before an intervening desert to blossom as the rose, and to be 
occupied by the industries of man; until we forget these and many other 
achievements we shall be apt to believe that, perhaps, the most valued product 
of the Pacific slope is its race of men. The sunlit isles of the Pacific, with their 
Southern vegetation, strange native tribes, queer customs and their odd animal life, 



24 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



are constant stimulants to the imagination, and readily suggest the won¬ 
ders of life to those who find it difficult to perceive these in objects to which 
they are more accustomed. Many of these islands, however, are wholly the work 
of the coral insect, which thus offers its life that in the fulness of time it may 
provide a habitation for man. The fact that the coral appears unable to build at a 

greater depth than thirty fath¬ 
oms seems to sustain the belief 
of scientists, who assert that 
the sea is only submerged land, 
and that now in our day this 
process of submerging a con¬ 
tinent is every day going on 
in the Pacific. The infinite 
variety of shape exhibited by 
the coral formations, and the 
pellucid character of the water, 
suggest the most gorgeous and 
varied architecture of the Orient, 
while the myriads of jelly-fish 
and polyps, with their shadings 
of crimson and sapphire and 
yellow, lend the effect of color¬ 
ing compared to which the 
gilded domes and minarets of 
man seem sombre. Or again, 
they suggest the most luxu¬ 
riant and gorgeous submarine 
garden, whose flowers are the 
colored inhabitants of the sea, 
and whose serpentine paths are 
marked by the most beautiful 
shells. After vegetation has 
sprung from the seeds, brought 
thither by fish and bird and 
breeze, many an island looks 
at a distance as if it were 
merely a garland intended to 
add to the glories of Neptune, 
or to be worn by some gigantic 
mermaid. It has been sug¬ 
gested by some one with a keen 
instinct for turning every de- 
different forms of corae- velopmeiit to the service of man, 

that we shall yet see the day 
when we will cultivate the coral insect and make it expend its efforts in building 
sea-walls for our harbors. If it be remembered that man’s “ greatest achievements 
have been but the precipitation of his dreams,” we shall feel less inclined to scoff 
at a suggestion no more preposterous than the building of the Pacific Railroad, 
or the spanning of the Mississippi by the great Saint Louis Bridge. It is not 

















THE LIVING WORLD. 


25 


yet fifteen years since the use of electricity as an illuminator was unknown, 
and yet think for a moment of the extent to which its secrets have already 
been discovered and the many forms in which it is made to serve the needs 
and pleasures of mankind! But the coral insect serves mankind not solely by 
furnishing habitations ' for human beings. It is used not only for ornament, 
but its skeleton is, in its fossiliferous forms, the source of supply for the 
Tripoli powder so necessary in the mechanical arts for the uses of polishing 
metals. In Virginia the city of Richmond rests upon a stratum of coral 
of twenty feet in thickness. 

Chili abounds in coral remains, and in addition has near Copiapo a beach 
now removed almost a mile from the shore and elevated nearly two hundred 
feet above the level of the sea; moreover, the transformation of this coral island 
into stone is even now going on under the very eyes of living beings. It is 
thought that fuller investigation will show that, in addition to the ordinary 
classes of aqueous, igneous, and metamor- 
phic as divided by the physical geogra¬ 
pher, we must add coralline rocks as com¬ 
posing much the greater portion of the 
earth’s crust. 

Huxley has compared the way in which 
corals build to that of the ancient dwellers 
around the Mediterranean, who erect one 
city upon another, as Schliemann has shown 
by his excavations in search of the famous 
city of Troy. Students of physical geog¬ 
raphy will remember that sometimes the 
coral builds a “ fringing reef,” or one which 
surrounds an island and is separated from 
it by lagoons of relatively shallow water; 
that again it constructs an “ encircling 
reef” or “atoll,” which almost surrounds 
an island; and that yet again it makes 
an “ encircling reef,” or one which must 
have been formed about land as it sank. 

There is at Mauritius a fringing reef 

one hundred, miles in circumference;, and an encircling reef eleven hundred 

miles long. . 

The Nautilus, and in fact all the species which compose the order now 
known as Cephalopoda , are direct descendants from the ancient bellamites and 
numullites whose fossil remains are strewn so plentifully over the whole globe. 
Concerning this fact Rev. William Buckland, D. D., makes the following obser¬ 
vation^ £ rom the view we } iave ta k en 0 f the zoological affinities between 

living and extinct species of chambered shells, that they are all connected by 
one plan and organization; each forming a link in the common chain, which 
unites existing species with those that prevailed among the earliest conditions 
of life on the globe; and all attesting the identity of design that has effected 
so many similar ends through such a variety of instruments, the principle ot 
whose construction is in every species fundamentally the same. 



NAUTILUS IN THREE POSITIONS. 


2 6 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


Fossil numullites are especially numerous, and though generally micro¬ 
scopic in size, their minute bodies compose the principal bulk of many moun¬ 
tains, such as the Alps, Carpathian and Pyrenees. The Pyramids and Sphinx- 




CUTTLE-FISH {Sepia officinalis). 


of Egypt are a composite of limestone and the chalky remains of these small' 
animals, and all chalk, wherever found, is but a composition of the fossil of 
these and other creatures belonging to the same genera. In the long ages- 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


27 


of the world, however, development continued until the representative types of 
cephalopods now existing show greater perfection of structure, in their natural 
progression from the simpler towards the complex, as well as notable increase 
in size, with corresponding diminution of numbers. These larger existent 
forms will now be noticed. 

The Sepia, or Cuttle-fish, also called Squid, claims our attention as next 
in the order named, and as being closely allied to the nautilus both in habits 
and appearance, though its power is perhaps a hundred-fold greater. They 
are also divisible into perhaps a dozen species, ranging in size from the 
smallest, pen-shaped calamary, that is often found in schools of thousands, 
to the giant squid measuring from tip of tentacle to tail more than a dozen 
feet. Indeed, it has been claimed by not a few persons, Mr. Beale among the 
number, that the creature grows to the extreme length of twenty feet, with 
power to drag an ox into the water. This animal has a soft, unprotected body r 
bag-shaped, and a curious fleshy appendage issuing from the sides. The head, 
which is about one-half the length of the body, terminates in ten tentacular 
arms, the under sides of which are armed with numerous saucer-shaped suckers 
that are used to seize and hold its prey, and by which it also attaches itself 
firmly to anything it may reach. The eyes are large, and near them issue 
two long feelers destitute of suckers except at the extreme ends, and the power 
that these exert is small, evidently being used by the animal to thrust into 
deep crevices to search out its prey. In a bag located near the heart the 
sepia carries a large supply of ink which he can eject at will, and which by 
discoloring the water effectually hides him from view, thus affording him an 
excellent means for protection against enemies. 

Cephalopoda-Dibranchiata ( Two-gilled ). The name of the class is 
derived from the fact that its members cannot only swim, but they also- 
rival the acrobats in their ability to walk upon their heads, along the bottom 
of the water. The shell is generally internal; the arms, which are provided with 
discs for sucking, ordinarily number from eight to ten. 

The Argonauta represent the eight-armed genus ( Octopoda ), and are named 
after the mythological explorers who went forth in the Argo, and whose 
adventures, after stimulating the Greeks, have added to the treasure of stories 
for our own children, besides furnishing imagery for the poet and the 
orator. 

The Argonauta argo (Paper nautilus ) has no internal skeleton ; two of 
its arms are outstretched and form broad sails, which seem to be unfurled to 
the breeze and used for propelling the animal to which they belong. Oliver 
Wendell Holmes’ poem, called “ The Chambered Nautilus,” is familiar to ever}' 
school-boy and may suggest the enjoyment of beauty, of useful lessons, and 
the inspiration which may be drawn from the animal world. 

As a matter of exact science, it must be confessed that the Argonaut 
does not use his canvas-like appendages as sails, but that their function is 
partly that of holding animal and shell together, and partly the secretion of 
the substance from which the shell is formed. This shell, as doubtless is 
known to many of our readers, is very thin and transparent, flexible, and 
grooved, and so like the earlier forms of ships that it is supposed naval 
architects took their first lessons from the argonaut. The argonaut sometimes 
leaves its shell for brief periods. In repairing any damage to its dwelling, the 


28 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




animal wastes no effort, but if pieces of shell are obtainable, uses them so as 
to diminish the quantity which it must itself manufacture. 

The Mediterranean is the natural home of the argonaut , where it may be 
seen sailing its mimic vessel near the shore, and frequently, when alarmed, 
furling its sails and sinking out of sight. Like the cuttle-fish, it ejects at 
pleasure an inky substance which protects it from its enemy. The eggs hatch 
in about three days; for two days more the shell-less young share the shell of 
the parent, which had previously been used as a depository for the eggs ; at the 

end of a week the young have matured 
sufficiently to leave the ark and to sail 
life’s waters for themselves. 

The Pearly Nautilus (. Nautilus 
pompilius ) lives in the deep sea, though 
sometimes rising to the surface and, by 
a special arrangement for increasing or 
decreasing its specific gravity, can with¬ 
stand a pressure and compression suffi¬ 
cient to force a cork into the neck of 
a bottle. 

Of Cephalopods there are a great 
variety, and nearly all are found more 
section OF shell of the nautilus. or les ? common along the American 

coast in the north temperate latitudes. 
The largest and most formidable of this species belongs to the order Octopoda 
(eight-footed) and Decapoda (ten-footed), in which 
classes the calamar, sepia, cuttle-fish and octopus 
are included. These are so very similar in habits 
and appearance that it is with no violence to 
classification that we include the three under a 
general description. 


THE GIANT OCTOPUS. 


Specimens of the octopus are frequently found 
stranded upon the beach after a storm, their soft 
bodies fatally injured by being dashed against 
the rocks. Much dispute has been indulged over 
the probable size attained by this animal, the 
ancients being very firm in the conviction that 


THE OCTOPODA CUTTLE. 


the creature not infrequently reached proportions that enabled it to draw a ship 
under water, and others maintained that in the waters about Norway they had 
been seen sleeping on the surface so large as to resemble an island. These 
stories were even circulated as facts by Aldrovanus and Pontroppidan, both of 
whom were regarded as learned naturalists in their day. We have also many 
circumstantial accounts of frightful accidents precipitated by attacks on ships by 
the kraken , which was the name formerly given to giant species of the octopus. 

The Decapoda, or ten-armed cuttle-fish, are cylinder-shaped instead of 
globular, and their arms look rather like the leaves of the cactus. Sepia 
officinalis, the Common European Cuttle-fish , is from a foot to a foot-and-a-half 
in length; has a calcareous bone as an internal skeleton; a smooth white skin 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


29 


with brown and purplish-brown spottings. Its eyes are used as neck-pearls; its 
skeleton for pet birds, for the pounce used in writing and in embroidering, and 
for small delicate casting. It is a source of 
loss to the professional fisherman, as it attacks 
the fish in the seines or nets. 

In regard to these once very popular super¬ 
stitions the learned Dr. Walsh submits the fol¬ 
lowing opinion: 

“We cannot doubt that the depths of the 
sea, where vegetables flourish eight hundred 
feet in length, are also peopled with monstrous 
animals, whose organism is adapted to these 
unknown regions, whence they but rarely 
emerge. Their very real appearances have 
formed the basis of the mysterious traditions 
which, for more than two thousand years, have 
been transmitted from generation to genera¬ 
tion of mariners, and which have given birth 
to the fantastic creation of the kraken and the THE decapoda cuttle. 

sea serpent. While masses of small gelatinous 

medusas floating at the surface provide food for enormous whales, there is also 
at the bottom of the sea an abundant prey for these prodigious animals.” 




THE fabled kraken. 


It is an undisputed fact that there exist in the Mediterranean and other 
seas cuttle-fish of extraordinary size; to deny this would be to dispute the 






30 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


assertions of hundreds of responsible persons, as well also to deny the evidences 
which are contained in several museums, where specimens of this huge crea- 
tnre are preserved. A calamar was caught some years ago near Nice, which 
weighed upwards of thirty pounds. Less than forty years ago an individual of 
the same genus was caught in the same place that measured six feet in length, 
and its body is now preserved in the Museum of Natural History at Mont¬ 
pelier. Peron, the distinguished naturalist, asserts that he met with one off 
the coast of Australia that was nearly eight feet long. Two travellers, Quoy and 
Gaimard, picked up the skeleton of a cuttle-fish in the Atlantic Ocean, near the 
equator, which, when living, must have weighed at least two hundred pounds. 
M. Rung found in the Atlantic the body of another, which he describes as 
being as large as a tun cask. In this instance the tentacles were quite short, 
and the body of a reddish color. He secured one of its mandibles, which is 
still preserved in the Museum of the College of Surgeons in Paris, and is the 
size of a man’s hand. 

In 1853 a gigantic cephalopod was cast ashore on the coast of Jutland, 
where it perished. Some fishermen dismembered the body and bore it away in 
several wheelbarrow loads. The back part of the mouth of this animal is said 
to have been as large as the head of an infant. Another, equally great, was 
taken in the Atlantic in 1858, while it was engaged in a deadly combat with 
a whale, and parts of it may be seen in the museum at Copenhagen. 

Few inhabitants of the deep with which we are now familiar, however, 
have furnished such opportunity for thrilling description as Octopus vulgaris 
(Octopus or Cuttle-fisli). Its skeleton is confined to two dorsal, cone-shaped, horny 
substances. The body is round, soft and jelly-like, and has a leathery integu¬ 
ment or covering. The arms are of extraordinary length, frequentlj 7 being four 
or five times the length of the body. They are studded with sucking discs 
(frequently as many as several thousand), are reproduced if lost, and are 
■capable of an embrace which is very difficult to resist. The mouth consists 
of an orifice surrounded by a circular lip, beneath which appears a beak whose 
longest part lies below; the mouth and jaws are supplied with powerful 
muscles, so that the octopus can easily crush the shells of crustaceans and 
mollusks, and carve the bodies of fishes ; the tongue is adapted alike for tasting 
and for conducting food to the digestive apparatus; the mouth lies so as to be 
surrounded by the arms, which seize its food. On one side of the abdomen 
are two siphons used for ejecting the inky liquid which it employs to conceal 
itself from its enemies. They are used also for propelling the octopus by 
sucking and ejecting streams of water. It was formerly supposed that the sepia, 
or India ink, so much used by artists, was made from the ink of the cuttle^ 
fish, instead, as happens to be the fact, from lamp-black and glue. The animal 
has large, shining eyes, placed at the base of the arms ; it is keen-sighted, and. 
so to speak, far-sighted; finally, it is phosphorescent and one of the creators of 
that mysterious and interesting light on the waters which is so ordinary and 
so attractive a phenomenon at sea. 

The octopus is found in every quarter of the globe, attaining its largest 
size, and exhibiting its greatest ferocity, however, in southern or tropical 
regions. The largest specimens weigh from a hundred pounds upward, and 
their muscular development is proportioned to their weight. They have been 
known to attack boats and the sailors in them, and have given rise to many an ex- 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


3i 


citing story, even if the adventure is to be classed with those of the orthodox 
fisherman. The thrilling tale of “ The Toilers of the Sea,” though written by 
the greatest and most impassioned of Frenchmen, suffers from the author’s 
confounding the octopus with the polypes. 

Several specimens have been found on the Pacific coast having a radial 
spread of thirty feet and , weighing two hundred pounds. A very large one, 
though in a somewhat mutilated condition, was dredged from a depth of one 
thousand fathoms (about one mile) by the United States Coast Survey in 1878. 
Another, of comparatively small size, was captured by the Fish Commission off 
the New England coast, and was kept alive for some time in a tank, where its 
habits could be observed. At all times it appeared very timid, remaining all the 
while at the bottom, from which it could rarely be made to stir. When aroused, 
however, it would dart swiftly from one side of its quarters to another, and then 
firmly attach itself to the 
bottom again by the pow r - 
erful suckers along its 
arms. The eyes were 
very large but seldom 
opened to their fullest 
extent during the day; 
at night, however, it 
seemed to have greater 
animation and kept its 
eyes wide open, from 
which it was thought to 
be a nocturnal creature, 
as it undoubtedly was. 

The Rev. Mr. Harvey 
described a specimen that 
was cast on shore in 1879, 
which he declares meas¬ 
ured eighty feet, and gave 
a graphic account of its 
terrific struggles to escape 
from a pool in which a receding tide had left it; but the body was not preserved. 

A great many accounts have appeared from time to time of thrilling 
adventures with these animals, the novelist being especially free with such 
descriptions, but I can call to mind only a single instance, properly authen¬ 
ticated, where a man has actually been attacked by any member of the 
Cephalopoda family. The account is furnished by the gentleman who had this 
frightful experience, and who was no other than Professor Beale, a distinguished 
naturalist. He relates that while engaged searching for shells on one of the 
Bonin Islands of the North Pacific he came upon a rock-squid (cuttle-fish), 
as it was creeping upon its eight tentacles over some rocks towards the sea. 
The creature’s body was little larger than a man’s two. fists, though its 
arms had a spread of nearly five feet. Curious to determine the strength of 
the animal, Mr. Beale endeavored to arrest its progress by pressing his foot 
upon one of its arms, but to no avail, and his resolution becoming the stronger 
because of the apparent ease with which the creature successfully resisted every 



the octopus ( Cephaloptera). 







32 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



attempt thus made to retain it, Prof. Beale at length seized one of the tenta¬ 
cles with his hands, and a veritable tug of war ensued. Small as the ani¬ 
mal was, its hold upon the rocks was marvellously tenacious, and for a consid¬ 
erable time he was unable to detach it, but a supreme effort, accompanied by 
a jerk, finally served to separate the creature’s hold, but with most disastrous 
results to the naturalist. The moment that its arms were free the terrible 
squid flew, with an amazing exhibition of passion for so small a thing, directly 
at the naturalist, and fixed itself with the same tenacious hold upon his bared 
arm. It was now Prof. Beale’s time to cry for quarter, which he did most lustily, 
but with his cries he coupled a stout resistance, seeing that the creature was 
making every exertion to reach his arm with its*powerful parrot-like beak, which 

if successful would probably 
take most of the flesh from that 
member. His cries fortunately 
were heard by the captain of 
the vessel, who was also on the 
beach not far distant, and who 
hastened to the professor’s as¬ 
sistance. The two now tried 
in every way to make the crea¬ 
ture quit its hold, but were 
unable to do so, and were finally 
compelled to proceed to the 
landing boat, some distance 
away, all the while holding the 
squid’s horrid head, and there 
to secure a knife with which it 
was cut into many pieces before 
Prof. Beale was finally released 
from his vindictive and extra¬ 
ordinarily tenacious adversary. 
The animal had applied his 
powerful suckers with such 
force to the bared arm that 
blood was drawn in consider¬ 
able quantity wherever the 
attacked by a squid. dreadful cups had been at¬ 

tached. 

If such power resides in so small a creature as is here described (and the 
account seems authoritative), what might one nearly twenty times larger be able 
to do? Imagination must pause here. 

The squid and its congeners produce their young from eggs, after the 
manner of fishes. The eggs, however, are very much larger comparatively, and 
very closely resemble a large bunch of blue-black grapes. They are frequently 
found thrown on the beach, especially after a storm, and it requires a long ex¬ 
posure before their vitality is destroyed. If the eggs are taken within a few 
hours after deposition and placed in a tank of fresh sea-water they will germi¬ 
nate, after passing through many alterations in appearance, and let loose the 
most grotesque appearing little creatures—very harlequins—that can be con- 












THE LIVING WORLD. 


33 


ceived. Small and deformed as it appears to be, the young squid is very 
active immediately after birth, whisking about through the water in a most 
reckless manner, as if to exercise his long, pent-up limbs, until his vigor is 
somewhat spent, when he gradually settles down towards the bottom. Here he 
stops, and, drawing his siphon apparatus, blows a hole in the sandy bottom, into 
which he quickly sinks out of sight, and there remains for a day or more 
before reappearing. 

There is a well-authenticated story of a sponge diver, who, upon reaching 
bottom in twenty-five feet of water, was suddenly alarmed by feeling something 
grasping him. It turned out to be an octopus , and it was not until after a 
fierce battle, during which the diver cut the body into mince-meat, that the arms, 
having no longer any support, ceased to embrace the intruder into submarine 
mysteries. But apart from the danger and the fright, the diver was confined 
to his bed for months from the effects of the wounds made by the octopus. 

The fossil remains of the cuttle-fish are numerous, and indicate the need 
for their activity when the waters were so filled with animal life. The Am¬ 
monites , the fossil ancestors of the cuttle-fish, vary in size, from the minutest 
particle to a diameter of two or three feet. They derived their name from a 
fancied resemblance between their horns and those to be found on the statue of 
Jupiter Ammon, the supreme deity of the Libyans. Unscientific persons still 
cherish the belief that these fossils are genuine petrifactions, and the number 
of legends has been multiplied by the superstition of persons who found in 
the Ammonite a judgment like unto that which was executed upon Lot’s wife. 

The Loligo Squids are very common, and are most brilliant in their color- 
ing, which they seem to be able to change at will, and with a rapidity which dis¬ 
credits Samuel Warren’s account (in “Ten Thousand a Year”) of Tittlebat Tit¬ 
mouse’s hair-dye. Red, blues of all shades, orange and brown are quite common 
colors. 

The Common Squid, or Pen-fish (. Loligo vulgaris ), is green, inclining 
to brown. Its eyes are bright emerald green; its fins are shaped like the 
lozenge of the geometer, and they reach from the tail to about the middle 
of the body. They are used in forward movements, while the mollusk, at 
pleasure, moves backward by contractions of its body. Its head and arms pro¬ 
trude from the body like the head of a turtle. The skeleton is a fac-simile of 
a quill pen, and hence the popular name of the creature. It lays upwards of 
forty thousand eggs, which are arranged upon the radii of a circle whose 
diameter is many inches. 

The Dotted Loligo (or Loligo punctata ) is quite common, and though 
swimming backwards (as it has no fins), is very agile. The species called the 
Sea-arrow is a favorite bait among those whose life is spent in the cod fish¬ 
eries. This species jumps from the water and seems to fly. It has been known 
to leap as high as the deck of a large ship. The Hooked Squid is so large and 
aggressive as to be dreaded by pearl fishers. 

The Common Garden Snail (or Helix aspera), like the other members of 
its order, breathes not by means of gills, but by means of lungs, not aerated 
water, but atmospheric air. The eyes are placed at the extremities of the four 
tentacles. As an embryo it is provided with a shell, so that Shakespeare’s 
allusion to the snail, which always was provided with a house, was very happy. 
It manages its locomotion by means of a single disc-shaped foot attached to the 

3 


34 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


central surface. It is distinguished alike for longevity and for a singular 
tenacity of life. It is said that after many years’ enforced sojourn in the 
cases of a museum, the snail has been known to proceed as though there had 
been no interruption of his opportunities and no disuse of his services. Their eggs 
are produced in the necks of the snails, just as if even at this early period the 





PERIWINKLE AND GARDEN SNAILS- 


parent would gather her young to her bosom. As the snail grows it builds 
additional stories or whorls in its shell, and as it needs at each increase yet 
more commodious quarters, the front whorls are of greater size. 

The edible Heart Mussel (CarcLium eduele) prefers brackish water to 
salt, and hence is so plentiful about the Thames as to give rise to an almost 
separate industry. It is not so very palatable, but from its great numbers and 
the ease with which it is caught, it forms in English life what the Americans 
would call an “ institution.” 

If I were to describe conscientiously the several classes of creatures that 
furnish an unbroken chain—in which there would be many links—connecting 
the cephalopods with fishes, it would be necessary to 
pass over a very wide field, in which we would find not 
only vast numbers of animals, but many distinct orders 
as well. I would have to give space to a description of 
hundreds of mollusks, which are interesting because 
of the beautiful shells in which many of them have 
their houses, but tedious, at best, when it is attempted 
to portray them ; next to these would be the slugs and 
linnets, members of the same family, but without charm¬ 
ing shells to recommend them; and the gasteropods, or 
sea snails, that are as uninviting as our common garden 
species; and myriads of the Bryozoa , or u moss ani¬ 
mals,” which are so nearly vegetable that one may be 
grafted upon another, or one may be converted into 
several by separation, but which are interesting only to the microscopist. The 
coral workers, called Polyzoa , would next claim our attention, to pursue which 
would lead into many devious passages where we could hardly find our way 
without the light of a classical dictionary. And so, to prevent wearying the 
reader, and to avoid the charge of attempting the compilation of a work for 
the scientist rather than for the masses, I have resolved to confine myself, as 
stated in the introduction, to those forms of life with which we have more con¬ 
cern than mere idle curiosity, and thus provide a practical work for every day 
consultation, instead of a book suited only to those who have abundance of 
time for deep investigation and indulgence. 



HEART MUSSEL. 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


35 




With the reader’s attention thus called to the missing rounds in the ladder 
•of development up which we are gradually climbing, but with pieces of the 
broken rungs projecting barely enough for a footing, we will proceed to a 
•consideration of some of the representative types of the lower orders of. life in 
the sea, from which we will find a more perfect development in the higher 
existing classes, but in which 
there are characteristics con¬ 
necting the two plainly distin¬ 
guishable. 

The Echinoderms (or 

urchin-skinned animals ) take 
their name from the resem¬ 
blance of their spines to those 
of the hedge-hog. They glide 
along like unreal beings, owing 
to their almost unlimited num¬ 
ber of little tentacles, each ter¬ 
minating in a sucker. 

The Sea Cucumber is 
•cylindrical and has a leathery 
integument; it is an article of 
extended commerce among the 
Chinese. One species when 
not at ease will practise the sea cucumber. 

hari-kari of the Orient; but 

unlike the less skilful human being, it can reconstruct itself and renew its 
mundane existence. 

The Sea-Urchins proper have their upper portions covered by a shell, 

which is curious alike from its appear¬ 
ance, and for the mechanical skill re¬ 
quired for its construction. This shell 
is made up of a great number of curved 
plates, so that increase in size without 
loss of form can be attained by calca¬ 
reous deposit on their edges. The 
spines furnish one of the wonders of 
the microscopic world; each one is 
movable at the will of the animal, and 
has the same joining as the upper 
arm of a human being. In the meta- 
morphic period the creature is at first 
globular. It then puts forth a dome¬ 
like part, supported by frail legs, which 
leather sea-urchin (. Asthenosoma hystrix). might do honor to the slender supports 

of the furniture of a French Louis. 
It then assumes the form of a clock, with the regulation position of hands, 
which presently expand into the typical Echinoderm. 

The ordinary Star-Fish, helpless as it is in the hand of a human being, 
has been successfully rapacious beyond belief. It is specially predaceous among 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


36 



the bivalves. Its voracity is such that if it swallows a bivalve it will pay no 
attention to the shell, which it retains amidst the other indigestible matter. It 
can sustain the loss of members, which it quickly repairs. It moves 
with a glide, compared to which the steps taught by a dancing-master are 
clumsy; moreover, it can adjust itself to emergencies, and by retiring trouble¬ 
some members seems 
able to crawl through a 
“ knot-hole.” Its struc¬ 
ture puts to shame the 
oft-vaunted cloistered 
cathedrals of Europe; 
columns arise in won¬ 
drous beauty and purity, 
and the vaulted aisles 
dwarf the skill of our 
most celebrated ecclesias¬ 
tical architects. The 
Star-fish protect their 
young until these are 
able to provide for them¬ 
selves. The species are 
many, and so varied as 
to suggest no consan¬ 
guinity. Though appa¬ 
rently without organs of 
sight, scent, or sound, 
they are quick to per¬ 
ceive the vicinity of bait.. 
They seem able to com¬ 
press themselves at 
pleasure, so as to pass 
through apertures ap¬ 
parently smaller than 
themselves. The Bird's - 
foot resembles in form 
the foot of a duck, while 
its coloring of scarlet 
and yellow is a feast to 
the sight. 

The Leather Sea- 
Urchin (.Asthenosoma 
hystrix ) can live more 


SEA stars (Asteracanthion rubens); SEA cucumber { n ucumaria doliolum ); 
and climbing urchins (Echinus microtuberculatus). 


than a thousand fathoms, 
or more than a mile be¬ 
low the surface of the 

water, and a moment’s reflection upon the fearful pressure of the sea at that 
depth will suggest the great strength possessed by this seemingly frail inhabi- 
. tant of the deep. It is generally globular in form, and resembles the little knit 
caps worn by girls. Its bright coloring, relieved by the white linear markings. 


















THE LIVING WORLD. 


37 

renders it a beautiful creature. It is, however, dangerous to handle, sihce its 
sharp spines both sting and benumb. 

The Marsupial Sea-Urchin (Hemiaster Philippii) is remarkable foi 
having four deep cavities, in which, like the opossum, it receives its young. 



medusa head (Astra caput medusa;). burdock holothuria. 

(Synapta inharcus.) 



PURPLE HEART URCHIN. 

{Spatangus purpureus.) 


Snake Star, or Pluteus, is the name given to the embryonic sea-urchin, and 
is of great interest because so unlike the Echinoderm, into which it is to be meta¬ 
morphosed. It has a bilateral (two-sided), symmetrical (side corresponding to 
side), non-radiated body, which is mostly obscured by an apparently helpless 
tangle of eight long arms, supported by slight calcareous rods. As these arms 



sun star>fish (Solaster papposus ) AND young. young hair stars. 

(Comatula jnediterranea.) 


vibrate they suggest some of the most grotesque and horrible drawings of 
Gustave Dore. The creature swims by a parachute-like opening and closing 
of its arms. 

The Brittle Star-fish is constantly engaged in breaking itself into pieces, 
but it repairs the damage as speedily as it occasions it. 



38 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


The Shetland Argus is remarkable for the multiplication and flexibility 
of its arms. In the pages of history, as these are written in the rocks of the 
geologist, the star fishes are called Encrierites. 

The Sun Star (■ Solaster papposus ) is rare, but it is caught at times by fish¬ 
ermen off Newfoundland. The Medusa’s head (. Astrophyton caput Medusa ), by 
its ever-waving arms, suggests the serpentine locks of the Medusa of Grecian 
mythology. It will be remembered that Medusa lost her great beauty through. 



SCHOOL OP JELLY FISH. 


the envy of Minerva, and that her handsome tresses were turned into snaky 
locks and her attractiveness of feature into an ugliness which petrified the 
beholder. It is unnecessary to urge that the sun star exercises no such, 
diabolical power, and that the ceaseless movement of its arms threatens no such 
danger as is to be looked for from the octopus. It seemingly is the sole survivor 
of numerous species to be found among fossils. 

The Phosphorescent Tunicate ( Salpa maxima) is specially remarkable 













THE LIVING WORLD. 


39 


from the fact that the single parent produces a community which exists only 
when joined into a chain; and, on the other hand, the individual links of this 
chain produce individuals which lead a solitary existence, so that the animal 
represents an “ alternate generation.” 

The Hair Star-fish, or Feathered Star ( Canatula mediterranea ) is found 
in the Mediterranean, and frequently appears clinging to a piece of sea-weed. 

The Discophora {Disc-bearers) , such as Jelly-fish, Sea-nettle, etc., are a 
very numerous, attractive, and under some circumstances troublesome, com¬ 
munity in the waters of the ocean. They seem restricted to no temperature or 
clime. They exhibit the most infinite variation in size, form and color. Many 
of them add to their personal charms the phosphorescence which is so charm¬ 
ing a feature of evenings at the seaside. Their delicate tissues assume all 
imaginable forms, and rival the magic of the kaleidoscope. The arms proceed 
from beneath the umbrella-like disc, and resemble the four posts of some 
grotesque arbor. The mouth, when existing, is placed in the lower wall of 
the disc and is furnished with tentacles. A common species has a multi¬ 
tude of filamentary tentacles which resemble a fringe dropped from the seat 
of a chair; these it entwines about any object 
of contact. As each one of them is endowed 
with the ability to sting, it can make its 
presence felt, and its memory a “possession 
forever.” One species is frequently two feet 
in diameter, and moves about in schools or 
shoals, which oftentimes are sufficient to in¬ 
terfere with the progress of boats ; iridescent 
in the sunlight and phosphorescent in the 
twilight and darkness, their course is a path 
of light. 

The jelly-fish is the glass umbrella of 
the sea, and in place of the handle are numer¬ 
ous delicate filamentary tentacles. By the 
contraction and expansion of the muscular, 
umbrella-like body, the creature makes its way through the water. Its tentacles, 
however, contain a sting and a poison-cell, so that while admiring its beauty 
one must remember the maxim, “Do not touch me.” All animals’ bodies are 
partially water, but the jelly-fish contains only about thirty grains of solid matter 
out of a possible ten pounds of weight. Many a person who has admired the 
beauty of the floating jelly-fish has been surprised to find it almost vanish after 
it had been caught. A story is told of a thrifty farmer who collected loads of 
jelly-fish, thinking to fertilize his land therewith, but found that he had rather 
discovered a new method of salt-water irrigation. 

The Moss Animal ( Cristatella mucede ) has the lower part of its body d isc- 
like, so that it is capable of moving from place to place. It loves the meridian 
time of day, and as it basks in the sunlight has a great resemblance to the 

^pp e Bird’s-Head Coralline {Bugula aviaclaria) is curious, because until 
quite recent times its family was supposed to belong to the vegetable world 
Externally, like the coral insect, it falls into another class when examined with 
reference to structure. Its activity is such as to excite attention m the locali¬ 
ties where it abounds. 



FRESH WATER MOSS ANIMAE. 
(i Cristatella statoblastem.) 



40 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


The Swimming Snail (. Pterotrachea ) is a wing-footed mollusk allied to the 
Cephalopods. The name is derived from portions of the feet being expanded 
and fitted for swimming. The two arms, corresponding to the head and tail, are 



The swimming snail ( Pterotrachea coronata). 


CLUB BEARING URCHIN. 

(Cidaris clavigera.) 




supplied with suckers like those of the cuttle-fish, while the body appears dotted, 
each dot, however, being a protrusible arm in which is a suction disc. Its 
length rarely exceeds one inch. 

Mouth-Closing Snail (Clausilia bi- 
plicita ). These are found about the margins 
of streams, but 
rarely enter 
the water, their 
principal hab¬ 
itat being in 
the neighbor¬ 
hood of the 
Mediterranean. 

They are wide¬ 
ly distributed 
over Europe, 

Asia and Africa 
and number 
seven hundred 
species. The 

shape is cylindrical fusiform, and the mouth appears 
sealed during dry seasons. 

Mussel Shell (Spondylus spinosus ). A very large 
variety is included under this head, the name being 
given to designate the thorny appearance of the shells. 

Among these is a very rare shell found in the East 
Indies under the specific name of the king mussel (N. 
reg ius ). 

The Rooted Hair Star-fish belongs to the order 
of Rhizo crinadce , which takes a place midway between 
the sea-urchins and snails. It is a deep-water dwel¬ 
ler, taken by dredge, at a thousand fathoms, in the 

A , 1 , • T y • & i L 1 . ’ ANTEDON CRINOID. 

Atlantic, it is somewhat rare now, but was very 
abundant in past geological ages. 

The Antedons, or Climbing Sea-Urchins, belong to the same species as 


MUSSEL SHELL. 








THE LIVING WORLD. 


4i 


being classed under the head of branchiata (many-armed), 
numerous branches into which the creature is divided, like those 


the above, both 
because of the 
•of a plant. 

The Shield Porcupine ( Clypeaster rosaceus) is a member 
•of the very large family under which the sea-urchins are 
•classed. The species here specially named is about the size 
of a silver dollar, and presents many beautiful markings which 
make it an interesting study, the most curious being the 
prickly spines with which it is covered, from whence the 
name is derived. ' It is not a very common spec’es, and 
appears more frequently on the Pacific coast. 

The Finny-Legged Mollusk (. Hyalea tridentata ) is 
remarkable, because, like the glow-worm, it lights up the 
darkness of the night. 



SHIELD PORCUPINE. 

(1 Clypeaster rosaceus.) 



TUBULAR HOLOTHURIA {H. tubulosa ). 




The True Kauri ( Cyprcza moneta) is used in Africa as currency, and this 
fact has established its capture and exportation as a commercial interest. 

The Grape Mollusk ( Botryllus ) is peculiar, 
because though an apparently single star-fish it 
is really a community of many individuals which 
Lave, with the exception of the organs of respi¬ 
ration, individual development. 

The Tree-like Snail (. Dendronotus arbor- 
^scens) has shrub-like gills upon the back, while 
its tentacles take the semblance of the true gills. 

The Edible Mussel ( Mytilus edulis) is dis¬ 
tributed with the greatest profusion throughout 
European waters, and an unexpected encounter 
as it clings to its support is 
very lacerating to the feel¬ 
ings of a human being. Its 

value as food is more than tree snail. 

open to question, but it is 
always good to “ feed fish withal.” 

We now hasten on to the next higher form, which, in 
the most natural sequence, will be 


T«E CRUSTACEA. 


hyalea tridentata. 


Under this heading are classed those creatures that have 
a shell covering, or crust, in both legs and body, and which breathe by gills, 
and not by air tubes, as do the Cephalopods. To this order belong a large 


42 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


variety of species, most prominent of which are lobsters, crabs, cray-fish, shrimps,, 
water fleas, barnacles, snails, sea-urchins, star fish, etc. 

The Coronet Barnacle (Bolones crenatus ) is the name given to a curious 
parasite that fixes itself in the skin of Arctic whales, and sometimes multiplies 
to such an extent as to worry the poor creature into acts of frenzy. To these 
parasites have the rare attacks of whales on ships been attributed. The worried 
mammal, being driven mad by these tormenting parasites, will rush on any 
object at hand, or even wildly throw itself against an iceberg. The Burrowing 
Barnacle is another species that infests whales in the Antarctic sea. These are 
also very annoying, occasionally eating their way through the epidermis and 
far into the blubber, but do not appear to produce such pain as the former 
species. 

The Goose Barnacle (. Lepas anatifera ) is more commonly met with on 
account of its habit of clinging tenaciously to the bottoms of ships, measurably 
retarding the speed, and requiring at times the docking of ships in order to 
scrape off the adhering barnacles from their bottoms. The young of these 
creatures are free and very active little creatures, disporting themselves with 

apparently hilarious freedom, in imitation somewhat 
of the well-known fresh-water whirligig. As they 
grow older, however, their activity diminishes, until 
at length they attach themselves to some rock or 
wooden support, and there remain the rest of their 
lives. Their appearance in the mean time has very 
materially changed from that of a beetle to a mussel, 
so that their identity is entirely lost save to those 
who are familiar with the metamorphosis. 

While adhering to a support the adult barnacle 
is provided with a set of arms called cirri, which 
resemble hairs protruding some inches out of the 
point of the shell. These the creature uses to draw 
into its mouth the microscopic animals that these 
arms attract. Being henceforth fixed in one spot, 
the adult barnacle loses the eyes that are well developed in the young, and the 
same marvellous change is noticeable in losing the rudimentary limbs with which 
the creature js provided in its infancy. They multiply at an astonishing rate, 
and at maturity attach themselves, by instantaneous contact, to any substance at 
hand, whether animate or inanimate, so that they are frequently seen adhering 
to turtles, and even fishes, which are unable to divest themselves of these tor¬ 
mentors. 

Fish Lice, or Pcecilopoda , is an order of Crustacea that are parasites on 
various fishes. The Greek name given them signifies many-footed , on account 
of a provision which enables them to walk, swim, bite, and to breathe either in 
or out of water. Their mouths have sharp mandibles, out of which projects a 
horny tube, which the animal strikes into its prey, reaching to the small blood 
v vessels, which it drains while holding on tightly by means of the mandibles. 
Many different species exist in both fresh and salt waters, and may frequently 
be seen stuck fast under the pectoral fins of a great many of our common 
fishes. Other species infest the whale, and even the lobster’s cuirass does not 
protect him from a louse, which seems to have been created for his worriment. 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


4 $ 



The Sand Flea is a curious little creature found at times in great num¬ 
bers along American beaches, looking very much like a shrimp, though hardly 
so large. In size.it ranges from one-half to one inch in length, and is covered 
with a white, semi-transparent, leathery carapax. It progresses by hopping, and 
can attain considerable speed. When apprehended it curls up and simulates 
death, but is. off again very soon after being released. 

The Fairy Shrimp. This little animal is the connecting link between 
the water lice and shrimps, having characteristics common to both, especially 
in resemblance. He is so called because of his extremely attenuate and trans¬ 
parent body, render¬ 
ing him invisible 
save to the critical 
eye. His length is 
about one inch, and 
the creature is made 
for progression by 
swimming on the 
back, using the tail 
like a crawfish, so 
that he can dart 
through the water 
at great speed. 

There are several 
species that are very 
closely allied to the 
fairy shrimp, nearly 
all of which are pe¬ 
culiar to European 
shores. 

Mantis Shrimp 

(,Squilla Mantis ) is 
a name given to a 
species found only 
in the Indian Ocean, 

I believe, being 
most plentiful about 
the shores of Mauri¬ 
tius. It is some 

three inches in dredging for sea shrimp. 

length, and is cov¬ 
ered with a shell like cur common crawfish, though the body is very much, 
longer comparatively. A specimen was caught by Dr. Lukis, who observed its 
habits in an aquarium, and reports his experience as follows : “ It sported 

about, and after a first approach exhibited a boldness rather unexpected. When 
first alarmed it sprang backwards with great velocity, after which it assumed a. 
menacing attitude, which would rather have excited the fear of exposing the 
hand to it. The prominent appearance of the eyes, their brilliancy and atten¬ 
tive watching, the feeling power of the long antennae, evinced quick apprehen¬ 
sion and instinct. I brought a silver teaspoon near it, which it struck out of 









44 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



PERCH LOUSE. 
{Acht hexes p escarum.) 


LEAF FISH LOUSE. 
(Argulus foliactus.) 


WORM. 
{Liftinona terebraus.) 


LOUSE CRAB. 

(Cyniothoa a strum.) 


my hand with a suddenness and force comparable to an electric shock. The blow 
was effected by the large arms, which were closed and projected with the quick¬ 
ness of lightning.” 

Phyllosome, or Leaf-shaped Shrimp , also known as the glass crab, is a rare 
creature, found only occasionally about the Channel Islands. It is small in 
and but for its resemblance to a spider, would be considered a 


very beautiful animal. The legs are eight in number, radiating from the body, 
and from the second joint of each issues a second limb, the anterior being rudi¬ 
mentary, while the posterior have even 
greater development than the true legs. 

The body is harp-shaped and so trans¬ 
parent as to be almost invisible, except 
for the two brilliant blue eyes that are 
set on the projecting ends of antennae, 
like the snail’s, though they are not ex¬ 
tensible. 

The Nauplus is a larval form that 
was long mistaken for a species. 

The Gill-foot .( Crenilabus tinea ) is notable 
because the eggs will hatch however long the 
process be delayed. It is a small green species of 
the European connor. 

The Mussel Crab (. Notodromus monachus) is 
a queer-looking creature, wdiose body is covered 
by an egg-shaped shell, with little hairs at the 
back part, and in front an upper and lower pair 
of fringed antennae. 

The One-eyed Canthocarpoid ( Cyclops ca7i- 
thocarpoides) is a singular crustacean, segmented, 
and as one goes backward growing beautifully less. 

The Sea Trumpet ( Triton variegatus ) is the inhabitant of the well-known 
conch shell. The Periwinkle ( Litorinia litona ) is found upon the rocks in 
British waters, and is a well-known article in the London fish market. The 
land snail still continues to contribute to the luxuries of the table, for which it 
was fattened in the time of the Roman gourmands. 

The Sea Hare (Uplysia depilans) is a queer specimen of the snail, which 
exudes a fluid resembling violet ink. 




TRILOBITE FROM WALL WORM, OR SOW BUG. 

silurian formation. ( Oniscus tnurarius .) 








THE LIVING WORLD. 


45 



EDIBLE PRAWN. 


A yellow, oriental member of the snail family takes his outings under the 
shade of an umbrella, which fact has given rise to its name of the Indian 
Umbrella. 

The Argulus Foliaceus is a parasite living upon various fishes, chief among 
which is the stickleback. 

The Ravina Dentata, or Frog Crab, resembles in body the common frog,, 
although able to draw into its shell. 

Edible Prawn (Pa/iemon serratus ) is a name given to a species of shrimp 
abounding in the northern latitudes, and may be met with even in the ice 
fields of the Arctic regions. It was upon these creatures that Lieut. Greeley 
and his companions subsisted for a time during their desperate privations. 
This creature is the handsomest of his genus, and is frequently made a pris¬ 
oner to enhance the beauties of the 
aquarium, as well as more commonly 
cooked to charm the appetite of those 
who can afford such luxuries. Its body 
is translucent, streaked with brown, pink 
and gray, while the eyes are tinted with 
orange, purple and blue, producing a 
most exquisite effect as it darts through 
the water, or rises to catch a morsel of 
food. Like all of the crawfish family, the female carries her eggs about within 
a fold at the intersection of the caudal scale with the body, and retains them 
until the brood appears. It is a carnivorous creature with most voracious 
appetite, ready to devour not only putrid flesh and offal, but to attack and eat 
its own species, in which respect it is identical with crabs, crawfish and lobsters. 

Shrimps are used very extensively for food, but larger numbers are taken 
for bait, since nearly all kinds of fish bite eagerly at such morsels. There are 
thousands of persons engaged regularly in the work of shrimp-catching, the 
most general means employed being by arranging a wide-mouthed net, which 
is dragged over the sand at a depth of two feet, shrimps being invariably found 
near the shore and in shallows. 

The Opossum Shrimp ( Mysis vulgaris) 
receives its common name from a pouch 
attached to the legs of the abdomen; this 
pouch, like that of the opossum, is used as 
a nest for the eggs, or for the young so 
long as they require parental care. It is 
specially abundant in the Arctic Sea, but species are found on the Southern 
coasts. 

The true Shrimp, or Prawn ( Crangon vulgaris or Palemon vulgaris ), is 
esteemed a great delicacy by lovers of fish, and is a staple especially in South¬ 
ern markets. Our marvellous facilities for transportation are rapidly obliterat¬ 
ing distinctions of climate, and even persons of small means may now experi¬ 
ment upon what but a short time since were the fruits .- "" 

almost fabulous life. Necessarily, this multiplies 
plants and animals contribute to man’s support 

simply being fed upon. ... , r • i j *. 

The Wall Worm ( Oniscus muranus ) is singular from its special adapta- 



OPOSSUM SHRIMP. 


and delicacies of an 
human industries so that 
in other senses than that of 


4 6 


THE LIVING WORLD. 





COMMON SEA MOUSE. 


EARVA OF CKAB. 


or crawl with the greatest facility. Its 
snout has jaws and fringe-like tentacles, 
so that altogether it has a resemblance 
to the body of a mouse. 

The Silurian Trilobite is a fossil 
which derives its name partly from the 
geological formation in which it is fpund, and partly from its three lobes, or 
segments. The head is rounded in front, and often furnished at the back 

with long spines; the eyes, when 
present, are situated on opposite 
sides of the head, and are single, 
grouped or compound. In the 
earliest stage the body is an oval 
disc, and while there is no meta¬ 
morphosis, segmentation takes 
place as the animal develops. 
Some four hundred species have been distinguished by the faithful students 
who have devoted themselves to the study of this animal, whose advent pre¬ 
ceded our own. 

The Skeleton Screw ( Cap- 
rella linearis ), a curious creature, 
has a skeleton-like leanness, but 
likewise a voracity similar to that 
of the greyhound. The first pair 
of legs terminate in a thin, razor¬ 
like joint, notched along the edges, 
and shutting into a groove in the 
enormously large j oint above ; the 
groove has furthermore a double MANTIS SHRIMP ' 

kedgerow of spines. It supports itself on marine plants by its several pairs of 


lion to a life on land. It frequents damp places and is to be looked for under 
moss, dead leaves, and stones. It protects itself like the hedge-hog by rolling 
itself into a ball. 

The Sea Mouse (.Nereis pelagica ) is a nereid , or centipede, and has but 
little resemblance to fish. Its back is covered with a substance like flax, having 

fastened spines and iridescent bristles, 
making this animal a rival of the most 
beautiful humming-bird. It has many 
bristle-like feet, which enable it to swim 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


47 




WORM CRAB. 

(.Lerncea branchialis.) 


SHELL CRAB. 

(Notodromus monachus.) 


liind legs, straightens up its long, lean body, and continuously waves its terrible 
front legs, which allow no prey to escape. The antennae, also, are spined, and 
probably are used in catching prey. 

The Fresh-Water Shrimp, or Brook Flea-Shrimp (Gammaruspulex ), takes 
its name from its active movements when upon land. It frequents the smal¬ 
lest brooks, the tiniest rivulets, or the most rapid and deepest streams. When 
frightened it conceals itself in the mud. It carries the young attached to its abdo¬ 
men until they are large enough and strong enough to shift for themselves. 

The Crayfish, or Crawfish (Astacus fluviatilis ), is next, in the general order, 
to shrimps, which it resembles in many respects, but differs in the following: 
The body is longer and covered with 
a strong shell, in which are located all 
the vital organs. The extremities are 
flexible, but protected by a soft shell 
lying in flat rings, the edges of which 
overlap; the tail is flat, and composed 
of fine scales slightly overlapped so as 
to form a spread. In the extremity 
and tail reside its propelling power, 
the latter being capable of almost incon¬ 
ceivable rapidity of motion, equalling that of a fly’s wing. It has eight legs 
springing out from the belly, where the sheath to the body is slightly separated 
to permit the free movement of the organs that lie along the line of separation. 
In front of the anterior legs and directly under the thorax are the arms, which 
exceed the legs in length and terminate in bony claws 
of great muscular power. These are its weapons of 
defence and the organs used to catch and destroy its 
prey. The eyes are set well forward and on top, and 
at the point are needle-like thorns, on either of which 
are the two antennae, or organs of touch. 

The crawfish , in nearly all respects except size, and 
that it is a fresh-water habitant, is identical with the 
lobster. So nearly alike are the two that the crawfish is 
very frequently called the fresh-water lobster. Its fav¬ 
orite haunts are among flat rocks in the shallow places 
of clear streams, where it- generally lies in concealment 
watching for any water insect that may chance to come 
near. But it will also feed on refuse, especially if of 
an animal nature,’and being extremely pugnacious, will 
kill and devour its kind. The claws and legs are 
i very friable, and in the fierce combats it so frequently wages these are often 
I broken off; but the loss of any of these certainly gives it little, if any pain, 
i and the repair is rapid, new claws growing out again in a few weeks. 

Like the shrimp, its first cousin, the crawfish is largely used for both food 
l and bait, and is accordingly caught by various means to supply these demands, 
i but the more common mode is by enticing it into baited pots, into which it can 
easily enter but may not escape. 

The Lobster, which is classed under the genus Homarus , is the most 
1 important member of this order, not only because he is largest of the genera, 



iflf 


CRAWFISH. 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


48 

but because of its importance as a factor in the commercial world. He is 
found all along the coast, from Labrador to Florida, but rarely south of New 
Jersey, and the lobster fisheries do not extend south of New York. Stringent 
laws are enforced by all the New England States against the taking of lobsters 
except at certain seasons, when their flesh is marketable. The annual total 
catch of these creatures in the Northeastern States is valued at about one mil¬ 
lion dollars, the Maine coast producing more than that of any State because 
of the laxity of the laws relating to lobster catching. The principal means 
employed by the mobster fishers to take their prey is similar to that used by the 
crawfishers, viz., the sinking of lobster “ pots,” constructed of laths made into 
wooden frames covered with heavy netting. A hole is left in either end, 
through which the lobster enters to .the bait fixed in the centre. Several times 
each day these “ pots” are lifted and the lobsters taken before they can escape, 
as they never atttempt to do until the pot is lifted into the boat. 

A curious thing characteristic of the lobster is the annual shedding of his 
shell and the formation of a new one. The molting season is at the approach of 
summer, at which time he retires into a secluded spot, usually under a large stone, 
and there remains dormant until nature divests him of his old coat. This 
process is not dissimilar from that we observe in the bursting of the locust’s 
larvae and liberation of the fly. The lobster's carapax splits down the back 
centre, the rift gradually widening until the claw has shrunk sufficiently to 
permit its withdrawal through the arm opening, when the animal wriggles out 
of his old clothes, presenting a rather sorry and defenceless appearance. Being 
divested of his protective armor, he would speedily fall a prey to predaceous 
members of the crab family, or voracious fishes, if he exposed himself to their 
attacks, so, like a philosopher, he keeps indoors and awaits the formation of a 
new cuirass, which requires but a few weeks to complete, when he issues forth 
full of renewed life to continue his spoliation. Not every lobster is so wise as 
to remain concealed during the moulting season, for the weaknesses that are 
often perceived in mankind have their counterpart in the lower orders, and 
especially in the lobster. Not a few appear unconscious of their helpless con¬ 
dition, and boldly issue out of their retreats to take their chances among the 
many hungry maws that are watchful for such opportunities as the uncovered 
lobster affords, and many sacrifice their lives to this indiscretion. 

Next to the lobster family, being very close in relationship, is that of the 
Hermit Crab, whose hereditary patronymic some learned classic says is 
paguridea , or shell-dweller. Of the many strange creatures that people the sea, 
none are more curious in their habits than the hermit crab. Nature never 
makes any mistakes without trying, at least, to atone for the omission ; but 
when bringing forth this wonderful animal our good mother was possibly in a 
facetious mood, or else trying to determine how incongruous she could make a 
form. Her success at accomplishing the ludicrous must be conceded. 

Very often, when fishing in an arm of the sea with a shrimp bait, I have 
drawn up two, and as many as four, small hermit crabs at one time. To the 
person who meets with them in this wise, he will think it strange that peri¬ 
winkles would adhere to his bait, and unless he looks carefully he will be 
deceived as to what these “ periwinkles” are, for the crab is sly, and will let go 
the bait upon being drawn into a boat, and withdrawing into the shell will not 
stir, as if conscious of the effect of simulating death. When they think an 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


49 


opportunity offers they put out their legs, lift the shell upon their backs in a 
most comical way and make off for the water. 

The hermit , totally unlike his congeners, is brought forth without any 
protective covering. His body is quite as long, relatively, as the lobster’s, but 
it is soft flesh, very inviting to fishes and crabs, so that to atone for making 
him thus helpless, nature endowed him with a cuckold’s disposition, and a cun¬ 
ning that enables him to supply that which he ought to have had at birth No 
sooner does the hermit issue from the egg than he makes off in search of a 
shell that will afford him a covering for his d.elicate body. Naturally he finds, 
an abandoned periwinkle first, because these shells dbound everywhere in the 
oceans and about the beach, and in such variety of size and shape that the 
most fastidious baby hermit might easily be suited. Having become thus 
entrenched, so to speak, against his foes, he goes ambling about, always carry¬ 
ing the periwinkle house on his back. At length, however, his body becomes 

too large for his first quarters, and 
he seeks out another that promises 
to accommodate him more comfort¬ 
ably. He is not so easily satisfied 
as at first, and usually continues his 
search a considerable time before he 
finds a shell which he thinks is 
adapted to his size and circumstances. 
When at length a proper abode is 
selected he turns it over, pokes his 
preternaturally large claw inside, and 
then drawing up within his own shell 
until the old and new quarters are in 
contact, he transfers himself with 
such rapidity of motion that the eye 
may not perceive the change. 

As the hermit continues to increase 
in size he must make frequent remov¬ 
als, but the process is always as de¬ 
scribed unless it chance, as frequently happens, that two hermits of like size 
have a desire to seize upon the same shell. It is manifestly impossible that 
two should occupy one shell, so to determine which shall be the possessor a 
duel to the death is fought. In these combats the most surprising ferocity 
is exhibited. Their bodies being well protected, they fight with the large and 
lesser claw, with which each is provided, pulling, snapping and lunging, rolling 
about, first one having an advantage and then another, until at length the claws 
of one give way. When this event happens, the one thus bereft of his weapons 
can make no defence, but this does not protect him against further assault, 
since magnanimity is not a trait of crab character. The victor continues the 
attack until, with vindictive savageness, he drags the body of his victim from 
its shell, mutilates it beyond recognition, and then eats the remains. 

The hermit grows to a length of about one foot, with body large enough to 
fill a conch shell. One of this size, when thus protected, presents a formidable 
front, his very large claw covering the mouth of the shell, with a small claw 
acting as a reserve, ready to give effectual reinforcement in time of need. So 



HERMIT CRAB (Pagurus miles.) 



50 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



hard is the bony sheath of his .head covering, and so ponderous and powerful his 
claw, that no enemy, save one of his kind, can vanquish him or force him from 
his retreat. But cunning is generally opposed by cunning, as the wily hermit 
often falls a victim to the foes who are content to watch him until, in an 
unguarded moment, he projects his head too far out of the shell, when he is 
gobbled up in a trice by the frog fish. The octopus is also his enemy, and is 


Fiji, or robber crab ( Birgos latro). 


most successful in luring him from his shell. To accomplish this the octopus 
lies flat on the bottom and stretches one of his tentacles out across the mouth 
of the hermit ' 1 s shell. A slight suction by the octopus brings the hermit partially 
out of his abode to investigate the cause, probably thinking that a most appe¬ 
tizing morsel had suddenly dropped down within his reach. But as he ventures 
forth a few inches, in a trice the octopus has fastened one of his powerful suckers 
upon the hermit and drags him forth, when he is soon dispatched and eaten 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


5 1 


The Diogenes Hermit Crab is a species of the pagurus bernhardus just 
described, and differs in only a few particulars, one of which is its habit of 
climbing trees, and another is in the foetid odor which it has the power to 
emit. When frightened or captured they give forth a noise somewhat resem¬ 
bling the squeak of a green frog when it is first taken. They spend con¬ 
siderable of their time on shore, being vegetable as well as carnivorous feeders. 
Their principal haunts are about the shores of Brazil and the West Indies. 

The Robber Crab, which out of regard for its cunning in smashing and 
eating cocoanuts is often called the cocoanut crab , is found in many parts of 
the Indian Ocean, being most numerous about 
cocoanut plantations. The manner in which 
it breaks the shell of a cocoanut is thus de¬ 
scribed by Mr. Darwin: 

“It would at first be thought impossible 
for a crab to open a strong cocoanut covered 
with the husk, but Mr. Liesk assures me he 
has repeatedly seen the operation effected. 

The crab begins by tearing the husk, fibre 
by fibre, and always at that end where the 
three eye-holes are situated. When this is 
accomplished, the animal commences ham¬ 
mering with its heavy claws on one of these 
holes till an opening is made ; then turning 
round its body, by the aid of its posterior and 
narrow pair of pincers, it extracts the white 
albuminous substance of the nut.” 

Opposed to this statement of Mr. Darwin, 
which he does not confirm, having merely 
given the facts as related to him, is the affir¬ 
mation of many travellers, who pretend to 
have witnessed the feats described, that the 
crab, after effecting an entrance through the 
soft eye of the cocoanut, fixes the sharp point 
of a claw in the aperature, with the other 
mandible pressed so tightly against the other 
end of the nut that it is held fast, while the 
crab dashes it violently against a stone until the 
shell is broken asunder. This is more prob¬ 
able than the account furnished by Mr. Liesk. 

The robber crab is the largest of the genera, frequently. measuring three 
feet in length, with proportionate thickness of body. Its favorite retreat is near 
the seashore in a hole which it digs in the ground, usually at the root of a 
tree, to a depth somewhat below the sea surface, where it hides during the day 
and only sallies out after nightfall. In walking it has a very curious and 
awkward gait, going along on its tiptoes, after the manner of sand-fiddlers, in 
which respect it resembles a crab, though it possesses well defined characteris¬ 
tics of the lobster, to which it is certainly closely allied. Some persons have 
attributed to it the power of climbing palm trees to browse upon the young 
shoots, and a writer in “St. Nicholas” avers that he saw one, while suspended to 







52 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


a palm branch, seize a goat as it was passing beneath and lift it almost clear 
of the ground, a feat which we may well discredit. 

The King Crab ( Gecarcinus ruricola ), or more commonly called the horse¬ 
shoe crab , is a large species found on the Atlantic coast from Maine to Florida, 
and also among the West Indies, where they are called Malacca crabs. The 
popular name, horse-shoe , is a very appropriate designation on account of its 
shape, which is very like the under surface of a horse’s foot. The shell cover¬ 
ing is composed of three pieces, viz., a hemispherical anterior, composing two- 
thirds of the carapax, a heart-shaped posterior, which is articulated on the 
frontal shell, and a long spinous tail terminating in a very sharp point, and 
barbed along the upper edge. The tail of this creature is frequently converted 
into a dangerous weapon by West Indiamen, for upon affixing a handle, or 
even using it without this adjunct, it becomes a veritable stiletto. A singular 
feature of the oval shell is the appearance of two glassy orbs, one on either 

side of the shell, which 
have such a remark¬ 
able resemblance to 
eyes that they are cal¬ 
culated to deceive any 
save those thoroughly 
familiar with the 
animal. 

The king crab holds 
a disputed ground be¬ 
tween crab and scor¬ 
pion, having been 
classed with both, and 
still continues the sub¬ 
ject of much argu¬ 
ment. It rarely ven¬ 
tures out at sea, con¬ 
fining its range within 
a short distance of 
the sandy beach, into 
which it burrows after insects. It has no large claws, but is provided with 
ten small nippers, sufficiently large, however, for its quiet and timid habits. 
While the shell sometimes attains considerable size—a foot or more in diameter—• 
the animal itself is comparatively very small, occupying scarcely a third of 
the hollow, or scooped, space under the dome of its carapax. The young of the 
king crab , just before leaving the cellular membrane of the egg, and a short 
while after the egg-shell is ruptured, bear a rather striking appearance to the 
fossil trilobite. 

The Spider Crab ( Maia squmado ) is found in many waters, but attains its 
greatest size in the Japan seas, where it holds the mastery as being the larg¬ 
est, though almost defenceless, of all the Crustacea. They are so named on 
account of the hairy covering of the back and legs, which added to their shape 
gives them an appearance very spider-like. Some of the species are careful of 
their toilet and appear with clean bodies, but others seem very careless and 
become so covered with grime of the sea that they attract numerous parasites 



KING OR HORSE-SHOE CRAB. 













THE LIVING WORLD. 


53 


of both animal and vegetable character. So clothed at times are they with 
foreign bodies that scarcely any portion of the real animal can be seen as it 
moves about like a conglomerate mass on the ocean floor. So cumbrous do 
these accumulations become that the animal occasionally seems much distressed, 
and but for the 
shedding of his 
shell, by which 
alone he may rid 
himself of the 
parasites, he 
would probably 
be rendered in¬ 
capable of move¬ 
ment. 

Another species 
of the spider crab 
is so unlike that 
j ust described that 
the classification 
appears arbitrary. 

It is peculiar in 
being a counter¬ 
part of the well- 
known insect 
commonly called 
“grand-daddy 
long legs,” and 
progresses very 
much after the 
same manner. 

Specimens of this latter have been captured with bodies scarcely equalling the 
diameter of a dinner plate, whose spread of legs was twenty feet. 

The Porcupine Crab is also a habitant of Japan waters, where it grows 
to a considerable size. It takes its common name from the sharp spines which 
cover its body, giving it a formidable appearance, but not 
sufficient to protect ;t from the voracity of many species 
of fishes. 

The Frog Crab, of which there are several species 
found in tropical waters, has a body very like that of the 
frog, from which fact the name has been given. The 
body is small, hardly exceeding the size of a man’s fist, 
and the legs are so short as to be barely observable from 
a top view. 

The Death’s-head Crab, known to science as Dromia 
vulgaris , is confined to a small territory of the ocean 
waters, being found, so far as I have been able to deter¬ 
mine, only about the shores of the Channel Islands. The carapax is smooth, 
with a knob rising from the centre having a fanciful resemblance to a 
skull and cross bones. The legs are hairy and generally bear about, 



JAPANESE SPIDER CRAB. 



PORCUPINE CRAB. 



















54 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



WOOLLY CRAB. 


attached to them, certain fungi until the moulting of the creature sets its 
limbs tree. 

The Woolly Crab is a deep-sea animal, principally confined to the Mediter¬ 
ranean, distinguished for the thick coating of fine hair which covers the cara- 

pax. The claws are small, and elevated on the 
back in a most grotesque and apparently awkward 
manner. The posterior legs terminate in a hooked 
nail, by which the creature can grasp its prey 
firmly, or attach itself to any object with con¬ 
siderable tenacity. 

The Mask Crab is found in the India seas, 
but haunts the shores, where it lies concealed in 
the sand with only its antennae and eyes exposed, 
watching for its prey like the ant-lion. The 
claws are well developed and possess great 
muscular power, which enables it to destroy creatures much larger than itself. 
The name is given on account of the singular markings on the carapax, thought 
to resemble the features of a man’s face. 

The Crested Crab is most common about Japan shores, frequently coming 
out upon the land in quest of food. When surprised it folds its legs and 
appears rigid, very much like the tumble-bug, in which position it so nearly 
resembles a stone as often to deceive those even who are familiar with its 
appearance and habits. 

The Armed Crab belongs about the Florida reefs, where it is quite com¬ 
mon. The name has been applied because of the armament of its shell with 
long and very sharp spines’, making it dangerous to handle. 

The Fighting Crab (Gelasimus beliator ) makes his abode in marshy places 
near the sea coast, where he burrows to a considerable depth, but is often on 
the surface. It is distinguished by having one huge, abnormally developed 
claw, which may be either the right or left, while the other is extremely small 
and apparently unserviceable except to steady the animal when walking. The 
name is appropriately applied, for 
he is a pugnacious creature, and 
always spoiling for a fight. When 
running, the large claw is held 
aloft in a menacing manner, or 
occasionally waving as if signalling 
the approach of another of its 
species. As the Latin name sig¬ 
nifies, the animal is so grotesque 
as to provoke laughter. Another 
singularity exists in the very long 
foot-stalks upon which the eyes 
are placed, being somewhat longer 

in proportion than the projecting eyes of the snail. At times these crabs appear 
in such numbers as to fairly encumber the ground, but however thickly they 
may be distributed their movements are so harmonious as to always seem 
preconcerted, by which interference is avoided. When alarmed they move 
with the precision of soldiers, advancing and retreating in files of heavy 



WEST INDIA LAND CRAB. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


55 

columns, and never becoming disordered unless their ranks be broken by vio¬ 
lent attack. 

The Edible Crab {Neptunus hostatus) is the best known and highest 
prized Crustacea among Americans, because it constitutes no inconsiderable part 
of the food product of our people, ranking next to the oyster. This species is 
found in great abundance from the shores of Labrador to Mexico, and though 
countless numbers are consumed every year, while no efforts have been made 
at their cultivation or protection, yet it is quite as plentiful now as at any 
other period. Its haunts are about the 
muddy shallows, and especially where 
grasses grow, and it may be easily taken 
in many ways. The common method 
employed, .however, is by the setting of 
creels, or pots, into which the crab is 
enticed by bits of fish or tainted meat. 

Being a voracious feeder, it will not 
quit its repast until drawn out of water. 

In fishing about inlets it is more com¬ 
mon to draw up a crab, holding on to 
the bait with its claws, than to take 
fishes, which makes it a very pest to 
angling sportsmen. Like all the Crusta¬ 
cea, the shell is shed every spring or 
summer, at which time its flesh is held 
in the highest esteem, though many 
are consumed at all seasons of the 
year. It rarely grows to a size exceed¬ 
ing three inches in diameter. 

The Common European Crab 
(Cancer pagurus) may be taken as the 
type of a numerous family. Its shell 
is round in front and narrowed as it 
proceeds backward. The legs are short, 
but the claws are disproportionately 
large and not symmetrical. It dwells 
in deep water and is caught by crab- 
pots, though sometimes by a net. 

The American soft-shell crab is the 
lupea dicantha , caught after shedding 
their old shells and before they have bund deep-sea crab ( Willemaesia crutifera). 
assumed the new. It is considered a 

great delicacy, although a fondness for it is probably an acquired taste. . Crab¬ 
bing is among the commonest amusements on the Jersey coast, and in the 
Southern salt-water lakes. A piece of meat tied to a cord is always a sufficient 
bait, and the creature, “ having once put his hands upon it,” will not let it go 
so long as it is in the water. Crab-fishing requires no skill, and involves no 
danger greater than a nip to the careless fisherman. The Eastern crabs are 
not so palatable as those found in Southern waters. 

The Worm Crab {Lerncza branchialis ) is found upon the gills of the 





THE LIVING WORLD. 


56 

codfish. It is parasitic, and may be regarded as the type of what, in the life 
of fishes, is similar to the annoyances caused in higher animal life by parasitic 
insects. Some species devote themselves to the whale, others to the dogfish, 
and others yet to various representatives of the finny tribe. 

The Toulouson Black Crab, or Jamaica Violet Crab (Gecarcinus ruricola ), 
burrows from one to three miles from the shore, not being a true marine animal, 
but going seaward solely with the intention of depositing its eggs. It selects 
the last month of the old year and the first month of the new year, and at this 
time is a rare dish for the table. It hibernates in the summer, 
which is a more emphatic way of stating that it aestivates. During 
July and August it again rivals the dainty dish which was set 
before a king. It is an agile creature, and capable of inflicting 
punishment after death—its death; for some time its broken claw 
will continue to pinch with all the energy of a living being. It 
is a table delicacy, esteemed the more, possibly, because rare. 
It is found in the West Indies and is not aquatic. 

The One-Eyed Louse, and One-Eyed Sailor, are species 
which may well excite the wonder of even those who profess 
familiarity with the many curiosities of animal life. The techni¬ 
cal name, Cyclops , is appropriately applied, derivable from the 
{Cyciop^corUhoc^ P°P u ^ ar superstition, which so generally obtained during the 
poides .) early ages, that on the coast of Sicily dwelt a human mon¬ 

ster having but a single eye, which was situated in the centre 
of his forehead. The exposure of this myth led to the belief that though 
there were creatures in the insect world provided with many eyes, yet there 
were none whose vision was limited to a single eye. 

This belief was, however, like that concerning the 
fabled Cyclops, destroyed by the discovery of the two 
crabs above described, and so numerous have been 
the exposures of preconceived ideas during the past 
fifty years, revealing so many marvellous surprises 
in animal life, that even the wildest exaggerations 
of mythology and fable are shown to be exceeded 
by existent creatures. In this fact we observe new 
proofs of the well established theory of the perpetual 
change and progression of species. 

In the illustrations afforded by the Living World will be found evidences 
not only confirmatory of this theory, but instances in which we may perceive 
the successive steps of development. The succeeding chapter presents species 
wherein will be found the natural ascending series, manifesting a well defined 
and sequential progression always towards higher orders of life. 



ONE-EYED SAIEOR. 

(.Nauplius cyclops). 






W£±£t 











A VI L CO.UTH. PH I LA. 


eEAUTTIFUL- FISHES OF THE 




















































FISHES. 


WONDERS OF CREATION AS SHOWN IN DESIGN, STRUCTURE AND ADAPTATION. 



NOWLEDGE respecting the primary orders of life which 
abounded in the seas is largely speculative and made 
up of deductions drawn from analogy, and though 
the progressive steps in creation are visibly marked 
they are not so plainly consecutive, or perfectly ad¬ 
justed in arrangement. Enough is known, however, 
to justify us in the classification we have adopted.. 
The lowest orders are therefore denominated the 
invertebrates , or creatures in which the back-bone is 
wanting, because they are simple in form and least 
variable in structure. Nor is abundant evidence 
wanting in proof of the claim that the primitive crea¬ 
tures of the most ancient seas were invertebrates. 
Much of the proof in support of this theory has 
already been offered in the opening pages of this work, treating briefly the 
subject of the earth’s development, hence we do not need to pursue it further 
now. From the invertebrate to the vertebrate is not so long a step as the casual 
reader might suppose, for in all creatures save those which belong to the very 
subsoil of animal life—where the vegetable fades into the animal—the back¬ 
bone exists in a rudimentary form, and must necessarily develop with the 
progression of species. All these links are most distinct, and the chain 
connecting the highest with the lowest is complete, save that single strand 
which is wanting to bind man with the next descending order, which still 
remains undiscoverable, if, indeed, it ever did or can exist. Man alone seems 
to unite in nature with the Deity, and remains so far exalted above all other 
animal kind as to be separated by immeasurable space from all affinities, save 
alone the spiritual, to which his mind is ever an aspirant. 

If our surprise has already been excited by the wonderful forms and adap¬ 
tations of species described, how much greater must be our astonishment at the 
wisdom of the Creator as displayed in the more complex creatures and their 
marvellous endowments, which must now engage our attention, as we step 
into the field among animals of greater sensitiveness and improved organiza¬ 
tion. Those animals .which we have considered were adapted to a water habi¬ 
tation, but the comparative simplicity of their structure will appear when we 
come to contrast them with fishes, which exhibit the omniscience of God in a 
more surprising manner than any other creatures excepting man. 

( 57 ) 




5» 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


WONDERFUL ORGANISM OF THE FISH. 

The term fish is applied to animals that .breathe through the medium of 
water, extracting the air therefrom by means of gills, and which are specially 
adapted to an aquatic existence. It is impossible to give an exact definition 
without describing characteristics prominent alike in fishes and amphibians, 
for even the feature most peculiar to fishes, viz., gills, is possessed by crea¬ 
tures belonging to other and distinct orders, such as the proteus, and other 
animals that are supplied with gills while in the larval state. We must 
therefore be guided in a measure by the knowledge which every one possesses 
in a degree, which, with the descriptions to be given, will enable us to dis¬ 
tinguish the several orders, so far as classification can be trusted. 

The breathing organs of fishes are not in the lungs, for these are wanting, but 
in the gills, which are found on each side of the head, and covered by articulated 
arches called the opercula. These constitute the most sensitive parts of the 
fish, because they correspond in purpose to the heart, being composed of laminae 
permeated by blood-vessels so near the surface as to be in contact with the 
water, and extract the oxygen therefrom. The process of such extraction is by 
receiving water into the mouth and expelling it at the gill orifices, by which 
action the air is absorbed and the blood accelerated, similar to the effect pro¬ 
duced by the breathing of atmospheric air by land animals. 

When a fish is deprived of water his gills become dry, and this is followed by 
suffocation because he can no longer absorb the air. This is proved by the fact that 
the constant pouring of water over the gills, even though the fish be removed 
from its element, will serve to sustain its life for a considerable time. That the 
fish absorbs air in the act of drawing water through its mouth and dispensing it 
over the gills, is also proved by the well-known fact that the creature cannot 
long exist in a small body of water unless it be frequently renewed, because the 
air with which the water is impregnated soon becomes exhausted, and is then to 
the fish what carbonic gas is to land animals. Any artificial means that will 
force air into the water will again revive the fish, just as fresh air will relieve 
suffocation arising from carbonic gas in land creatures. 

The wonderful adaptation thus seen in fishes, which fits them for life in the 
water, is reinforced by their peculiar structure, which qualifies them for movements 
in their element. A fish is the very embodiment of grace, and exhibits truly 
marvellous design in its structure. The body is formed so as to pass through its 
medium with the least possible resistance, but to this advantage is added scales 
or skin covered with an oily secretion, which prevents friction, and facilitates its 
motion to such an extent that inertia may be said to be practically the only 
retarding influence it has to overcome. The fins are not always the same in 
all fishes, some having more and others fewer, but generally they are supplied 
with one on either side near the gills, which are called pectoral fins, two under 
the thorax, called ventral fins, one on the back, which projects from the spine, 
called the dorsal fin, one, and sometimes two, near the vent, called anal fins, 
and the tail, or caudal fin. Besides these organs of locomotion, many fishes are 
supplied with an air bladder, which is a rudimentary lung, by the inflation or 
contraction of which it is able to rise or sink at pleasure. 

Scales are not always present, but when wanting their place is supplied by 
an excellent substitute in the form of a strong and oily epidermis very difficult 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


59 


to rupture. The scales are formed by concentric layers of a substance resem¬ 
bling neither bone, horn nor membrane, yet partaking somewhat of the nature of 
these three. It is by these that Agassiz established his classification of fishes, 
and so perfect was his knowledge in this respect that he had only to see a scale to 
determine the fish to which it belonged, though he may never have seen the species. 

The organs of touch in fishes are either the lips or antennae, and are very 
acute, as is that of sight, but the auditory nerves are rudimentary, so that their 
hearing is obtuse, if, indeed, they have this sense at all. They are marvellously 
susceptible to vibrations, as is evidenced by the excitement they exhibit at the 
shock produced by a person stamping upon the ground. So they have been 
trained to respond to the ringing of a bell, but the vibration, acting upon super¬ 
sensitive nerves in the gills, may be the effect, rather than sound waves striking 
upon auditory nerves. The sense of smell certainly exists, but experiments indi¬ 
cate that it is not acute. 

The sex of fishes may be determined by shape and color, but with the 
exception of sharks, rays, and a few others, there is no external difference 
between the two. The manner of propagation is not by contact, as in other 
vertebrates, but by a singular process which is yet imperfectly understood. 
Both male and female are provided with lobes lying along the intestinal canal, 
in which are contained what is called roe . At the breeding season the female 
voids the roe , which, on examination, are seen to be millions of very minute 
eggs, and these the male impregnates by voiding the roe which he carries, but 
which has now assumed a fluid state, somewhat resembling milk. It is not 
necessary that the sexes should be near each other at this time, as it has been 
shown by the fish culturists that eggs may be conveyed to any distance and 
then impregnated by squeezing the milt , as it is called, of the male upon them. 

Some fishes are viviparous, retaining the eggs within the oviduct until the 
young are sufficiently developed to appear. How impregnation is accomplished 
in such cases is a problem naturalists have not been able to solve, though it 
is probably by the female absorbing the milt of the male .through the vent. 

Generally, fishes are predaceous in their habits, being so voracious that 
they turn cannibal with the most natural instinct, and feed off the young of 
all kinds, not even respecting their own. In this, however, we see a wise pro¬ 
vision, since but for this check upon their multiplication the waters would soon 
become choked by their bodies, as no other creatures increase so rapidly, 
except it be a few insects. 

Of all creatures, fishes are most difficult to classify, because characteristics 
of form, structure and organization are so blended as to appear peculiar to 
hardly a single species. Every attempt thus far made, even by Agassiz him¬ 
self, has proven so unsatisfactory that I will not undertake _ a work which 
others much more competent than myself have given over as impossible, but 
will strive to increase the general interest in fishes by presenting them as 
they seem most naturally to occur in the order of progression. 

NEST-BUILDING FISHES. 

It has only been within comparatively recent years that the discovery was 
made that certain fishes construct nests in which to rear their broods. The 
species first noticed as performing this singular labor were the Sticklebacks , 
which are quite common in English aquaria. For a long while it was sup- 


6o 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


posed that this was the only nidifying species, but more recent investigation 
discloses the fact that several fishes are peculiar in this respect in both fresh 
and salt water, as we shall see. 

The Sticklebacks are a small species belonging to the family Gastero- 
steidce , so called because of the sharp spines that project along the back. In 
some these spines are three in number, and again five, nine, or a dozen, each 
being a distinct species. In size they rank among the smallest of fishes, but 
are found in both fresh and salt water, and are common in Europe and 
America. The manner of constructing their nest, a service always performed 
by the male, is certainly curious. For this purpose the male is provided with 
an organ filled with a gelatinous secretion, which it voids through an opening 

in front of the vent, and 



NESTS OE THE STICKLEBACKS. 


which coagulates upon 
coming in contact with 
water, but which after 
voiding he carries about 
attached to his side. 

At the breeding sea¬ 
son, but before mating, 
the male selects a spot 
among aquatic plants, 
where a gentle current 
is continuous. He then 
begins his work by biting 
off small bits of plants 
and carrying them to the 
place of deposit, placing 
the first ones in an up¬ 
right position to serve as 
pillars. Other bits are 
now carried, each piece 
being glued fast by the 
substance which he se¬ 
cretes, until a layer is 
formed. His next step 
is to carry pebbles to the 
spot, with which he 
weights the layer and 


makes it substantial. Other layers, alternating with bits of plant and pebbles, 
are laid until the nest is made, arched over the top, leaving a cylindrical hole 
through the centre, which serves as the exit and entrance. The inner side 
is now well plastered with the glue from his body, and worked very smooth 
until it resembles varnish. Having completed his nest, he goes in search of 
a mate, to whom he makes love in an approved manner by a display of much 
vanity, involving a degree of activity which he manifests at no other time. 
When the female accepts his advances she immediately enters the nest and 
deposits her spawn, which usually occupies about five minutes. She then 
departs by the back door, when the male enters and ejects his milt over them 
in a much shorter time, then reappears and goes in search of another female, 






THE LIVING WORLD. 


61 




for he is a confirmed polygamist. In this wise he secures, perhaps, a dozen 
wives, each of whom deposits her eggs in his nest, and are followed by him 
as in the manner de¬ 
scribed, until the nest 
has its compliment of 
fertilized eggs, which are 
now covered by his secre¬ 
tion, and then left for 
nature to hatch. 

The Toad Fish is 
a habitant of the Ameri¬ 
can coast, rarely exceed¬ 
ing a foot in length, and 
of most repugnant aspect. 

The name is given on 
account of the peculiar- 
shaped head, which is of 
a calloused, wrinkled ap¬ 
pearance, somewhat re¬ 
sembling a toad. The 
pectoral fins have a large, 
fan-like spread, and un¬ 
der the lower lip are 
.several wattles, which 
probably serve as sensi¬ 
tive organs of touch. 

Small as it is, the fish 
has very powerful jaws, 
and is tenacious of its 
hold on anything seized. 


Toad fish and ITS NEST {Batrachus grunniens). 


It is generally found lurking in oyster beds, where 
it makes its nest, and in the breed¬ 
ing season remains so constantly 
within the nest as to give rise to 
the impression that the eggs are 
incubated. Even after the young 
are hatched it remains for some 
time within the hole, and until its 
brood are strong enough to provide 
for themselves. This species are 
said to be poisonous. 

The Frog Fish belongs to the 
same species as above, but is con¬ 
siderably larger and its habits differ¬ 
ent. It is also called fishing frog , 
and angler. They occasionally grow 
to a length of two feet, but of this 
frog fish ( Lophius piscaiorius). length the head constitutes one-half 

and is phenomenally broad. It has 
a very singular habit of half burrowing in the mild and projecting very long 











62 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


TOAD FISH OK THE SARAGOSSA SEA, WITH ITS R.OCK PISH- QR BI<ACK GOBY . 

nest (Anneatarius vespertillio ). 

expert climbers, and spend much of their time on shore, mounting the rocks 
and climbing over the roots of trees. Their progression is by jumping, and so 
swiftly can they proceed that it requires a fair runner to overtake them. They 
burrow in the sand, but bring forth their young by constructing a ball of the 
sea-weed, in which the eggs are deposited. For some time after the young are 
hatched they continue near the nest, ready to fly back again and hide in their 
globular house. They are found chiefly along the shores of the East Indies, 
though one species is quite common about the California coast. It is hunted by 
the Malays and Chinese, who consider its flesh a great delicacy. About the 
coast of Borneo it is especially plentiful. 



antennae, with which it is provided, at the end of which are flashy lobes that 
shine like silver. This attracts small fishes, which, when within reach, the 
angler pounces upon with certain aim and crushes between his powerful jaws. 
It is from this habit that the name angler has been given. The jaws are said 
to be strong enough to crush an oyster shell, but the statement lacks confirma¬ 
tion. Some maintain that it retires into holes and there rears its brood like 
the toad fish , but naturalists have not been able to determine the truth of 
this claim. 

The Black Goby, or Rock Fish, is found widely distributed, and several 
species are more or less satisfactorily known. It is of a singular form, being 

like the frog fish, large of head and 
tapering towards the tail. The eyes 
are so protuberant as to appear as if 
situated on' a foot stalk. They are 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


63 



The Sun Fish is everywhere common in American fresh waters, where it 
sometimes attains a weight of nearly one pound. As every person is familiar 
with its appearance, description is not necessary, but not every one is aware of 
the fact that it constructs nests in which to deposit its eggs. In this process 
both male and female engage. Having selected a suitable spot in still water 
near the shore, where small drift has settled in the mud, the two hollow out 
a circular space by swiftly circling, as if chasing each other, until a round 
nest, dipping in the centre, with twigs lining the periphery, is made. In this 
the female deposits her spawn while the male rises a few inches above her, and 
ejects' his milt until the water about the nest is so impregnated as to hide the 
two entirely from view for some time. 

The White Fish, peculiar to the fresh waters of Europe, are a species little 
larger than the sticklebacks, and their habits are not less interesting. Their 
method of nest 
building is by 
carrying small 
pebbles to a chosen 
spot and dropping 
them one by one, 
with patient indus¬ 
try, until a small 
pyramid is formed. 

As the work goes 
on, the female from 
time to time de¬ 
posits her spawn 
in the growing 
pyramid until the 

laying is com¬ 

pleted and theeggs 
are covered. The 
male now en¬ 
velopes the nest 
with his milt,which 
appears to settle 

like a film over 
the pebbles, and 

may be Seen for goby, or jumping fish ( Periophthalmus kczlreuteri ), of Borneo. 

days^after.^ ^ ^ a S p ec ; es 0 f bream found in tropical waters, and chiefly 
about the East India coast. It never goes into deep water, its range being 
restricted to inlets where vegetation is rank. The nest which this small crea¬ 
ture builds is very curious as well as substantial, and rivals that of the tauor 
bird. When the breeding season arrives the male goes in search of a vine or 
branch suspended in the water, and having found such he begins carrying 
small nieces of decayed vegetation, such as leaves and sticks, to the hanging 
branch^ and attaches them thereto by a secretion which has the adhesiveness 
of glue. The work progresses without cessation until the accumulation on the 
point of the pendant vine is nearly a foot m diameter. The female supenn- 


64 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



tends the building, going backward and forward with the male, but no one, 
so far as I have been able to learn, has ever witnessed her in the act of 
depositing her eggs. 

That she performs this 
most important part, 
however, is evidenced by 
the fact that the young 
have been observed 
issuing from the nest 
in great numbers. 

The Lamprey Eel 
is found in nearly -all 
the waters of the north 
and south temperate 
zones, though so retir¬ 
ing are its habits that 
few persons are acquain¬ 
ted with its character¬ 
istics. Much as I have 
fished in American 
streams, from Maine to 
California, I never met 
with but a single speci¬ 
men. While hunting 
along the foot-hills on 
the Missouri River, in 
Dakota, I stopped at a 
ranch where the keeper 
had just caught a large 

catfish, and discovered attached to the fish’s side 
a lamprey about twelve inches in length. The 
sight was such an unusual one that the man was 
much frightened, and was upon the point of aban¬ 
doning the fish, lest the strange animal might 
attack him. A knowledge gained by reading books 
of natural history taught me at once what the 
creature was, and at my solicitation the ranchman 
permitted me to retain the fish and its singular 
prey. It required considerable force to detach the 
lamprey, and when its hold was broken it seized 
upon the first thing in its way, which was a tin 
scoop, and this the creature held on to with great 
tenacity. At the point where it had fastened upon 
the fish the skin had been perforated, from which 
blood flowed some time after, showing what a drain 
upon the circulation had been established by the 
powerful suction. 

Lampreys seem to be a connecting link between the eel and blood-leech, 
the organs by which it is enabled to apply such suctorial force being almost 


NEST OF THE PIRAYA. 










THE LIVING WORLD. 


65 



identical with those in the leech. Unlike fishes, the lamprey is not provided 
with gills, the breathing being accomplished through seven orifices on each 
side, that are distinct and on a line with the eyes. Water is drawn in through 
these and thrown out again by each respiration. They are also peculiar in 
producing their young after development in the ovary, passing out through a 
genital pore, and then undergoing a metamorphosis somewhat like the frog, 
the larvae having at one time been regarded as a distinct genus. 

Though the lamprey is 
viviparous, it constructs nests, 
the object of which is not 
clearly understood. When the 
breeding season arrives they 
proceed up towards the source 


NEST OP THE WHITE-FISH. 


NEST OF THE SUN-Eibti. 


of a stream, sometimes in vast shoals, and at selected spots begin the construc¬ 
tion of nests, probably in which to harbor the young while in the larval state. 
In forming these the male and female unite their labors, and seizing stones 
by means of their suctorial mouths, convey them to the place desired. Often 
the sexes will be seen attached to a larger stone than one alone would be 
able to move, but by joining forces they make their success certain in trans- 

5 

















THE LIVING WORLD. 


porting stones of two or more pounds weight. By this means they build up 
considerable piles which, as before stated, may be to provide a refuge for their 
young. 


APODES—EELS. 



From the lamprey it is but a single step to the eel, though the former 
does not belong to the same order. Eels exist in considerable variety, and are 
found in both fresh and salt water. 

The Common Fresh-Water Eel is the best example of the genus, because 
while simplest in organization, it is also most common, being found m nearly 

all the streams of America and Europe. 
Their form is serpentine, but in all other 
respects they show little differences from 
predaceous fishes. They are extremely 
voracious, preferring game fishes, of which 
they devour incredible numbers, and hence 
are a source of great vexation to the 
owners of ponds stocked with game fish. 
They also eat crawfish, shrimps and other 
crustaceans, being very persistent in dig¬ 
ging under stones to get at them. Few 
fishes can swim through the water with 
such wondrous speed, and none are more 
daring. They burrow deep in the mud, 
seeming to be able to dive into the mire 
with the ease they pass through the water. 
Their voracity is so great that they are 
accused of seizing female fishes of con¬ 
siderable size and sucking the spawn 
from them. Eels of the fresh-water variety 
spawn at the head waters of streams and 
bring back with them a very large brood, 
though many of the young are devoured 
by bass and pickerel. It was formerly sup¬ 
posed that eels and lampreys spawn but 
once in a lifetime, but this belief is no 
more to be credited than a hundred other 
idle traditions once current about the 
animal. 

The Conger Eel, though a salt-water 
animal, is very like the- species just de¬ 
scribed both in habits and organization, 
lamprey eels making their nest. though it grows to be much larger, occa¬ 

sionally reaching a length of six feet. Both species are scaleless, and have the 
dorsal, caudal and anal fins confluent. The conger eel , while much larger, has 
organs of generation of much greater development than those of the common 
eel. In the female conger there is occasionally such an abnormal supply of 
eggs that instances have been known of the creature actually bursting from 
the enlargement of the ovaries. 



6 7 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


The Muraena is an eel found in the Mediterranean, the flesh of which was 
at one time so highly esteemed by the Romans that vast aquaria were built for 
their rearing, and in the markets 
these eels were sold at so great a 
price that only the wealthiest could 
afford such luxury. The rage for 
its flesh was at one time so great 


lamprey (Petromyzon americanus). 

that captive men, women and children were 


killed and thrown into these aquaria in the belief that such food made the 

Muraena’s flesh more delicious. 
This species is hardly so large as 

common eel {Anguilla vulgaris ). con ff er ’ ^ut habits are es¬ 

sentially the same. The mouth, 
a more formidable set of teeth, and the snout sharper, 
is peculiar to marsh regions and shallows of South 
America, where it grows to a length of six feet. In size and feature it very much 
resembles the conger, though the mouth is not so large nor so well armed, but it 
has a much greater armament in the powerful electric battery with which nature 


however, is armed with 

The Electric Eel 


has endowed it. These electrical 
organs, while easily located, are 



THE murajna {M. Helena). 


no more easily described than is 
the electric fluid itself. It is 
sufficient, therefore, to say the 
creature possesses the power of 
imparting a shock equal to that 
of a twelve-jar battery, and may 
give several discharges before 
the storage of electricity is ex¬ 
hausted. People about the region 
in which this animal lives are very 
fond of the flesh, and make use of a singular means to effect its capture. Knowing 
that these eels are most plentiful in the shallow ponds in the neighborhood of 
salt marshes, the fishers drive into these places a herd of horses, the tramplings 
of which quickly arouse the eels. As the creatures are combative, they attack the 
horses by imparting terrific shocks, and as the horses are not permitted to come 
ashore the eels continue to discharge their batteries until the force is entirely 

expended. When this 
is done they are en¬ 
tirely helpless, and 
may be taken in the 
hand by the people 
without danger. This 
wonderful power the 
eel uses in capturing 
its prey, instead of 
seizing live creatures 
with the mouth, as 
do all others of the 
eel species. This method of fishing is hard upon the horses, but very profitable 
to the fishermen. There is a non-electrical eel which is very fond of feeding 



electric EEL (Gytnnotus electric< 











68 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


upon ants, which it captures by laying its tail upon the bank and tempting 
them to feed upon the slime with which it is covered. 

The curious organization of the eel is exceeded by that of the Blind Fish 
found in many caves in America. These fish, recently recognized as a distinct 

genus, are now classified under 
the term amblyop sides (cave: 
fishes). They are curious in 
two special respects, one being 
in the absence of the organs 
of sight, for which they have 
no use, living, as they do, in 
caves where no rays of sun¬ 
light ever enter. The other 
curious feature is in the loca¬ 
tion of the vent, which is be¬ 
neath the throat instead of 
toward the tail, as in all other 
fishes. They are small in size, 
though well covered with scales, 
and their organization is well 
adapted for a hard and pre¬ 
carious life. The young are 
brought forth in a condition of development fitting them for independent action, 
though scarcely more than a quarter of an inch in length. 

Mud Whipper (Cabitis 
tesnia ). This properly belongs 
to the eel family, though not 
generally classed with eels. It 
is a small species, about one 
foot long, peculiar to the fresh 
waters of Europe and Asia. 

The body is decidedly eel-like, 
though the fins are not con¬ 
fluent. The head also resem¬ 
bles that of an eel, differing 
only in having eight barbels 
depending from the upper and lower lips. The air bladder of this fish is 
enclosed in a bony capsule, which gives it complete protection against rupture, 
a provision not seen in other fishes. 

FLYING FISH. 

The curiosity excited by a consideration of the creatures described in the 
foregoing account must give way to astonishment as we proceed to a description 
of species which may leave their element and soar away from the crest of a 
wave through the air like a bird, dipping its wings in the briny crests and 
rising* again like a wren flitting from bush to bush. 

The Flying Fish proper form a sub-family, because many species are so 
nearly allied as to be admitted to the general family, though not able to fly. 
Those which possess this remarkable power are organized specially, and exhibit 




BLIND fish ( Cyprinodons ). 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


69 

wonderful design. The body is slender, the bones very light and hollow, like 
those of birds, and all the fins abnormally developed. The pectorals, however, 

are of a length 


almost equal to 
that of the entire 
body, and have a 
very great spread, 
the web being of 
a very thin mem¬ 
brane, set on 
slightly-curved 
ribs, so that when 
expanded they 
assume the shape 
of an inverted 
dish, and thus act 
the part of a para¬ 
chute. The caudal 
fin is especially of 
great muscular 
strength, the un¬ 
der segment being much longer than the 
other, by whifch the fish is able to rise with 
an immense impulse from the waves. The 
propulsion thus given is maintained for several 
minutes by a vigorous sculling movement of 
the tail, the parachute serving to keep the creature suspended until it drops 
lightly to the surface, when a beat of the tail imparts a fresh impetus, and it 
goes forward with increased speed again. 

The length of the flight may be, a thou¬ 
sand feet, but is usually less than half 
that distance. There are probably a score 
of species that can rise from the water in 
this wise, all of which are small in size, 
the largest not exceeding eighteen inches 
in length. They are most unfortunate 
creatures in that they are remorselessly 
pursued in the sea by coryphenes and 
dolphins, while if they rise into the air 
they have no more merciful enemies in 
several species of sea birds, such as the great gull, frigate bird and sea hawk. 

Flying Gunard. This is a species very common along the Atlantic coast, 
but they are so interesting that the naturalist can never tire watching their 
curious forms and singular habits, for this is one of the few fishes which can 
walk, fly or swim. The pectorals, as in other flying fishes, are abnormally 
developed, and preserve an identical shape. Below the ventrals are six 
spinous legs, or what may be so called, that are not jointed, but curved so that the 
points are downward. Upon these the fish creeps along the sea bottom with its 
head close to the mud searching for prey. The species found along the Atlantic 




swallow fish (Exoccetus volitans.) 










THE LIVING WORLD. 


coast is a dusky brown in color, which some persons are imaginative enough 
to call sapphirine. It rarely exceeds a foot in length, and though classed 
among the flying fish it can only leap a short distance, nor are its swimming 
powers specially great, though it is certainly well equipped with propulsive ener¬ 
gies. When first 
taken out of the 
water it utters a 
noise somewhat 
like the low. sup¬ 
pressed croak of a 
frog. The true 
flying gnnard is 
found in warmer 
waters, and it is 
particularly abun¬ 
dant in the Indian 
Ocean. In this 
species the head is 
very blunt and the 
pectorals spinous, 
but the habits of all 
varieties, of which 
there are twelve, 
are very similar. 

The Lancet 
Fish, like the 
sponge, was for a 
long time unclas¬ 
sified as standing 
on the border line 
of the world of 
mollusks and the 
world of fishes ; it 
was variously as¬ 
signed to either. 
As the starting 
point of fish life, 
or the lowest fish 
form, it has special 
i n t e re s t for the 
student of the de¬ 
velopment of ani- 

FLYING GUNARDS. ANALOGY OF MOVEMENT BETWEEN BIRDS AND FISHES. mal life, and the 

interrelation of the 

various species which go to make up the abundant and variable life in our 
world. The lancet fish is everywhere abundant, and shows the greatest indif¬ 
ference to changes of temperature. Its minuteness, added to its peculiar form, 
tends to protect it against its enemies, and likewise necessitates the use of the 
microscope by one who would study its structure or habits. Its respiration is 














THE LIVING WORLD. 


7 1 


conducted by branchia, wbicb extend through the length of its body. Resem¬ 
bling in appearance the worm, the skin consists of a series of minute scales 
or plates overlapped. The mouth and vent are both situated on the left side, 
each somewhat removed from the extremity. The mouth is supplied with 
numerous tentacles and with a little beak. The food duct is composed of the 
mouth, stomach and intestine (as pharynx and oesophagus can likewise be 
distinguished). It has the least possible skeleton, which is, cartilaginous; 
its head is represented in the most rudimentary form by the end of the 
vertebral axis; its eyes, likewise, are rudimentary, seeming to be mere drops 
of pigment; its blood is colorless ; its heart, only the enlargement of a vein ; 
its eggs invite and reward study, as they seem to offer our nearest approach 
to protoplasm. The mature lancet fish buries itself in the sand, keeping 
exposed only its mouth and its tentacles. It may be seen springing from its 
self-selected grave and swimming toward the surface, and again diving into 
the sand and covering itself up. The young lancet fish omit the act of tem¬ 
porary self-interment, and, like children, seem to find satisfaction in a contin¬ 
uous and restless activity. 



SEA CAT. NORTHERN SEA CAT. 


The Slime Fish (.Myxine glutinosa ) resembles an eel, and since its skeleton 
is cartilaginous, it is capable of the most unlimited bodily contortions. It 
exudes through the pores of its sides a jelly-like substance, and from this fact 
has taken its name. Several species are found in the Pacific,. as far north as 
California. They are parasitic during a portion of their life A common 
name given them by fishermen is the borer , or sea-hog. They will attach 
themselves to the body of other fishes, scrape away the flesh by the use of 
their teeth, and, having thus boldly made an opening, will then take up their 
residence in the abdominal cavity of the unwilling and irritated fish. This 
species is quite numerous at Grand Menan, and less frequent on the Atlantic 
coast. It will enter the body of a fish which is dead, or which is caught by .a 
hook, and eat out the substance of the fish, leaving only a husk, as the termite 
ant does with houses and furniture. For the purpose of a scoop, the myxine 
might be a useful instructor for the active and eager reporter for a sensational 
daily paper. Whether the creature begins its attack upon the fish by boring 
into it, or whether it enters through the mouth, is a matter which naturalists 



72 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


have not as yet been quite able to fully determine, nor is it certain whether 
it so bnrrows to eat or to secure a habitation. 

The Northern Sea-Cat (Chimcera monstrosa) is gluttonously carnivorous, 
and has been called “The King of the Herrings,” partly because of its great 
destruction of these food-fish, and partly because of a crown-like protuberance 
between its eyes. Like an unsportsman-like hunter, it is not content with kill¬ 
ing the herring as food, but seems to take a malicious pleasure in mangling 
thousands which it does not attempt to feed upon. It has a long, cone-shaped 
snout, a long, shark-like body, green eyes, which, in the dark, resemble those 
of the domestic cat, and two large, wing-shaped fins. Its coloring is silvery, 
with brown spots, it is three or four feet in length, and its caudal fin is attenu¬ 
ated until it resembles the snapper of a wdiip-lash. 


In Greek mythology the 
chimcera was a three-headed, 
fire-breathing monster, having 
the head of a lion, the middle 
body of a goat, and shaped 
like a dragon in the tail and 
posterior limbs. Mythology is 
generally regarded as a belief 
encrusted by superstition, and 
it is more than probable that 
the early Greek explorers and 
navigators met with many of 
the strange inhabitants of the 
deep, and in their ignorance of 
natural history, and through 
their tendency to polytheism, 
speedily converted a particle of 
fact into a mass of superstition. 
In the hands of the poets these 
superstitions grew beautiful, 
and have permeated the poeti¬ 
cal literature of all peoples ; still, 
none the less, from the stand¬ 
point of the naturalist these 
are foolish tales, exceeded even 



FLYING PEGASUS DRAGON. 


in marvellousness by the real curiosities of sea and land. In the world of our 
time it is believed to be more reverential, as well as more profitable, to study 
the wisdom of the Creator, as infinitely manifested in His works, than to replace 
this appreciative study by human speculations, no matter how beautiful may 
seem the creations of our imaginations. 

The Angler, or Frog Fish (.Lophius piscatorius ), is about three feet in length 
and hideous to look upon. It is not quite “all head,” but, like a mis-shapen 
dwarf, its head is larger than its body. Its mouth stretches in width beyond 
the body, and is capable of taking in an animal of its own size. The mouth is 
lined upon jaws, tongue, fauces and palate with an armament of movable, hooked 
teeth, while its nose terminates in a palm-shaped excrescence, whose lustre 
excels that of the professional inebriate, but which, unlike the provision 







THE LIVING WORLD. 


73 


•of man, is used to attract, not repel, the beings that it would “have more 
acquaintance with.” It buries itself in the. mud so as to expose only its long 
feelers, or fish lines, and is very successful in “ welcoming ” its prey “ with 
hospitable hands to bloody graves.” 

The White Shark [Carcharinus vulgaris ), frequently called the ocean tiger , 
is a man-eater, and his greed, rapacity, and quickness of movement generally 
reward him for his sus¬ 
tained pursuit of ships. Its 
only enemy in the sea is 
the sperm-whale, which at¬ 
tacks it apparently simply 
to rid itself of a rival power. 

The shark, were it not for 
his unreasonable pugna¬ 
city, might easily escape 
the whale, but it seems to 
be quite willing to be killed 
if it can inflict inj ury upon 
its adversary. The shark 
has been made to contrib¬ 
ute to commerce its oil and 
its hide. His stomach seems 

to be even more curious than THE ANGUm {L<jphitts pi sca t orius) . 

the pockets of a small boy, 

for he will eat even substances that are wholly without nutrition, and which are 
indigestible. If lacerated by hooks ) he will none the less readily and greedily return 

to the bait. Shark-hooks are by preference 
baited with pork, and when the creature has 
been drawn within reach from the vessel he is 
harpooned, and his tail and fins withdrawn 
from the water by means of the hook-line 
and the harpoon line. He is then relatively 
helpless, and after a third rope has been 
passed around his tail, he is easily brought 
on deck. Having driven a handspike through 
his throat and cut off his tail, the sailors have 
succeeded in rendering their dreaded enemy 
powerless, and certainly are but little in¬ 
clined to spare him any suffering. A singu¬ 
lar device for killing a shark was invented by 
a negro boy. He heated a brick and threw 
it to the shark, which, though able to carry 
about with impunity to its stomach the head 
and horns of a large goat, could not contend successfully with internal combustion. 
It is said that on one occasion thirty-three natives of Tahiti were wrecked, and 
undertook to save themselves on a hastily constructed raft. Their weight 
kept the raft somewhat below the surface of the water, and a school of sharks 
attacked them and killed thirty out of the thirty-three. Twenty out of twenty- 
two men from a wrecked vessel fell a prey to sharks, and the heroism of their 







74 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


commander adds to the many courageous acts of which men have proved them¬ 
selves capable. Although both of his legs were bitten off by the sharks, the 
commander continued to give his orders for the attempted preservation of his 
men, and ultimately succeeded in saving two of them. 

Shark fishing is a popular amusement at Nassau and along the Floridian 
coast. A dark night is preferred, and a steel hook having a six-inch curve is 
fastened to a chain, and this in turn joined to a line generally an inch in 
diameter. The shark generally makes several investigations before it swallows 
the bait, retiring to meditate after each new, inspection. The moment, how¬ 
ever, that he has swallowed the bait he starts a lightning express towards the 
bottom of the sea. He is now fretted, and checked, and played like a trout or a 
pickerel. As soon as he appears to be exhausted by his futile efforts,' the line 

is drawn in until the head 
appears above water, when 
a noose is thrown over the 
pectoral fins and the tail, 
and when the shark is near 
enough to the boat he un¬ 
dergoes amputation, first of 
the tail and then of the 
head. We are told by the 
naturalist, Figuier, that 
there are various peoples 
in Africa who celebrate 
“The Festival of the 
Shark.” Three or four 
times a year the natives row 
first to the middle of the 
river, and with odd ceremo¬ 
nials invoke the aid of the 
shark. Next they put be¬ 
fore the sharks what might 
figuratively be called burnt- 
offerings of goats and birds. 
Next, an infant, consecrated 
at its birth and fattened dur¬ 
ing ten years for the enjoy¬ 
ment of the shark, is bound to a post on the sand below low-water mark. 
Like Iphigenia at Aulis, the child is regarded as a votive offering, and like 
Andromeda, the daughter of Cepheus and Cassiopea, the child must await the 
attack of the sharks, though, unlike Androtiieda, it is not to be rescued by 
any Perseus. 

The Great Pilgrim Shark is not a man-eater; in fact, it is the most 
harmless and amiable of the shark family. It frequently attains the length of 
thirty-five feet and the weight of two tons.. 

The Nurse Shark is frequently harpooned by boys in order that it may 
be induced to drag them in triumph over the water. The devotion of the pilot 
fish to the shark has been the subject of many a story, and as it will not 
desert the shark it is sometimes netted while swimming about its master. 



GREAT PIEGRIM SHARK. 










THE LIVING WORLD. 


75 


Whether the pilot fish really acts as a guide for tbe shark is disputed, but it 
is asserted that pilot fish have been known to find the bait, and without touching 
go in search of its voracious companion. Moreover, cases are mentioned where 
the pilot fish repeatedly steered the shark away from a baited hook. The pilot 
fish resembles the mackerel; its silvery gray color being similarly relieved by 
five dark-blue transverse bands. 

The Porbeagle, or Mackerel Shark, (. Lamna cornubica ) is a great annoy¬ 
ance to mackerel fishermen, as it breaks their lines and carries off both bait 
and hooks. 

The Basking Shark ( Cetorhinus maximus) is frequently seen in schools, 
whose backs rise above the surface, and whose great length makes them appear 
formidable, although they do not voluntarily attack men, and even when irritated 
only occasion damage, as the whale does, by powerful blows struck by their tails. 

The Thresher Shark 
(.Alopias vulpes ) is specially 
remarkable for its long tail, 
which frequently is nearly 
as long as the body. It is 
bluish in color and has a 
white belly. It is a great 
destroyer of herring and 
mackerel, and while feeding 
upon its prey lashes or 
threshes the water with its 
tail, apparently with the 
object of keeping the fish 
herded. 

The Smooth Hound, 

Sea Hound, or Dog Shark 

(Mustelis cam's) is sometimes 
called the hammerhead , but 
is only a few feet in length, 
and must not be confounded 
with the true hammerhead 
(.Zygcena malleus) ; is harm¬ 
less, feeds upon mollusks, 
and has received its popular 
name from its outward re¬ 
semblance to the true dog-fish. The true hammerhead is supposed to be a 
man-eater, though finding parts of a human body in the stomach of one speci¬ 
men does not prove absolutely that it killed the man. It reaches a length of 
twenty-five feet, and its head'consists of a double hammer-like projection, each 
extremity of which is surmounted by an eye. 

The Great Blue Shark {Carcharinus glaucus). It is found in every sea, 
is blue above and white below, and reaches the length of more than twenty feet. 

The Swell Shark ( Scyllium ventricosum) , is so called not because of his 
apparel, but because he will, when caught, swallow air until swollen out of all 
proportion. It is found on the Pacific coast of Mexico—a land abounding in 
curiosities, as well as rich in products valued by mankind. 



BASKING SHARK. 















76 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


The Cat Shark (ScyIlium catulus) , and the Dog Shark (ScyIlium Cani¬ 
cula ), are distinguished alike by their brown-spotted, red color, their destruc¬ 
tion of herring, their possible use as food, and because supplying the shagreen 

of commerce. 

The Tiger Shark, or 
Zebra Shark ( Stegostoma 
tigrinum ), is an inhabitant 
of the Indian Ocean, and 
takes its name from the 
markings of its skin; a 
brownish-yellow ground is 
traversed by black and 
brown bands, or marked by 
dark brown spots. 

The Angel Shark, An¬ 
gel Fish, or Monk Fish 
(Rhina squatina ), is a species 
of ground shark found in 
nearly all seas. It has been 
known to produce twenty 
young at a birth, so that 
its voracity is a serious 
matter for the fish upon 
which it feeds. Its only 
claim to the name, angel 
shark , or angel fish , seems 
to arise from its wing-like 
pectoral fins, unless its dia¬ 
bolical aspect may have 
suggested some fallen angel omitted from Milton’s account of the Satanic Hosts. 
Its smooth, round head evidently suggested to some fisherman the name of 
moiik fish. Its size, rapacity and carnivorousness make it a constant terror 



HAMMER HEAD SHARK. 



great beue shark ( Carcharinus glaucus). 

to fishes, even though not dangerous to man. It is several feet in length, 
and frequently weighs upward of a hundred pounds. It lives on the muddy 
bottom, burrowing its way through the slime and weeds, and quickly seizing 
upon the fish which it thus disturbs. Fishermen make war upon it, not because 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


77 


it is useful after capture, but because it destroys their “ happy bunting 
grounds.” 

ADVENTURE WITH SHARKS. 



A whaling vessel having been destroyed by fire at sea, its crew was 
ultimately saved by a shark. After drifting about for five days, during 
which the rations gave out, and several of the crew died from exposure and 
the delirium produced by drinking sea water, a shark rose to attack the body of 
the latest dead man. The captain promptly harpooned the shark, and while its 
strength lasted, used it as a substitute for the rowing of the crew, and after its 
draft powers were exhausted the shark was made to furnish edibles and drink¬ 
ables for the crew. But it 
most frequently happens that 
persons are saved for the shark 
instead of by a shark. Many 
are the incidents which may 
be mentioned in illustration 
of the shark’s inhumanity to 
man. Within the last three 
years the newspapers have 
recited the horrible fate of 
Captain Mark Robinson. His 
vessel was capsized, and within 
a few moments the unfortu¬ 
nate officer saw his wife and 
child killed by sharks, and 
had himself lost both of his 
legs, bitten off one at a time. 

One of the crew escaped with 
the loss of only one arm, and 
another, more fortunate, lost 
no limb, but simply baited 
the shark with flesh, whose 
loss, while painful, was not 
fatal. A shark bit in half 
a fifteen-year-old bather at 
Ceylon, and carried off the 
lower extremities of the un¬ 
fortunate youth who was so the monk, or angel fish ( 

suddenly called away by so 

horrible a death. The pearl divers, as they do not wear the armor of the' 
ordinary divers, are constantly exposed to sudden and terrible attacks from 
sharks. A diver not reappearing when expected was sought out by an Ameri¬ 
can, who, however, wore armor. The American found that the other diver 
had been rendered unconscious by a blow from the shai&s tail, and that the 
shark was just returning to begin its feast. He plungecr' his blade into the 
body of the creature, and fortunately with fatal effect. The first diver was 
resuscitated, but among his recollections none ever proved so thrilling as the 


adventure just recited. 

Shark stories are quite numerous, but possibly no more so than the fre-- 






78 THE LIVING WORLD. 

quency of the adventures in which they play a leading part. Quite frequently 
the sailor, tempted to take a swim, and remaining within what seems 
easy reach of the vessel, is bitten by a shark before his companions can 
pull him from the water. To render death terrible to the slaves who com¬ 
posed his cargo, the captain of an . African slaver hung a number of corpses 
to ropes and merely dipped them for a moment in the sea. In an 
instant the sharks had bitten off all but the feet themselves. There is a 
well-authenticated story of a shark jumping out of water, again and again, in 
its efforts to capture a negro woman who had been hung to the yard-arm. 
The amphibious efforts of the shark not only inspired the terror and horroi 
for which it had been intended, but was finally rewarded by securing the 
larger part of the culprit negro. The African slavers speedily became sources 
of supply to the sharks, for “ The spirit of gain, in the spirit of Cain,” natu¬ 
rally led to frequent 
loss of the stolen sav¬ 
ages packed together 
like sardines, insuffi¬ 
ciently fed and cared 
for, and like the sar¬ 
dine, frequently fried 
in their own oil. But 
unfortunately to the 
slaver, as well as to 
Hood’s seamstress, it 
was pitiful “that bread 
should be so dear, 
and human life so 
cheap,” and the sick, 
the maimed, the weak, 
were thrown into the 
sea with no greater 
reluctance than is 
shown by the angler 
in restoring to the 
water the fish which 
he cares not to keep. While the shark declines no kind of food, it is evident 
that this want of delicacv arises from necessity, not choice, for, like the King 
of the Cannibal Islands, he is very fastidious, and if at liberty to pick his man, 
takes by preference men in the order of color, preferring the darker shades as 
promising greater lusciousness, and less of the leanness and muscular stringiness 
of the sea-faring white man. Still, although the shark draws the color line 
we should not recommend any visiting white person to trust altogether to 
the shark’s being true to this preference, for like men, they sometimes forget 
their principles when too sorely tempted. 

The Chinese, whose densely populated country has forced them to the most 
untiring study of domestic economy, use the fins of sharks for the manufac¬ 
ture of gelatine; at one fishing station some forty thousand sharks were in a 
single year thus converted to the use of man. Until the invention of sand¬ 
paper, the skin of the shark, under the name of shagreen , was extensively used. 



BOY FATALLY BITTEN BY A SHARK. 





THE LIVING WORLD. 


79 


The Cow Shark ( Heptanchus indicus ) is found from California to the Cape 
of Good Hope. 

The Eel Shark ( Chlamydoselachus anguineus) is found in Japanese waters, 
and though but a few inches in circumference, attains the length of six feet. 
It is sufficiently like a small specimen of the sea-serpent to have interest in 
connection with what has been submitted in regard to the latter creature. 

The Spiny Shark ( Echinorhinus spinosus ) is a ground shark whose skin is 
covered by tubercles, whose thorn-like prickles leave a mark when handled. 

The Sleeper Shark ( Somniosus microcephalies ) is somewhat rare, and most 
frequently found in the Arctic region. It is a long, heavy creature, grayish 
purple with white spottings. It is not a nlan-eater, but is a deadly enemy of 
the whale, upon which it preys. 

Shark fishing has been described, but it may be as well to add that the 
negroes, in their less highly 
civilized state, are compelled 
to exhibit greater daring than 
the white man. Arming them¬ 
selves with a long, keen knife, 
negroes will boldly dive into 
the water and swim to meet 
the shark, knowing that the 
creature, feeling secure of its 
prey, will await their approach. 

As the shark turns upon its 
side to devour its victim, the 
negro plunges his knife into 
the monster’s belly until he 
who came to eat remains to 
be eaten. 

The Remora is believed 
by credulous sailors to attend 
the shark as a pilot, but nat¬ 
uralists have ascertained that 
it is a more fearful enemy to 
the shark than man himself ' 

can be. This herring-like creature is about a foot and a half m length, and 
suffers from constitutional weakness of the legs or fins; it is thus naturally 
inclined to attach itself to some other creature or object from which it requires 
no reciprocity of affection. On top of the head of the remora is an oval 
space, cut up into numerous partitions by many small teeth or bony fila¬ 
ments ; these cavities, therefore, have the power of discs, or suckers, and when 
fastened to an object are but little likely to be removed. The shark is rarely captured 
without one or more of this fish being found fastened to it a self-invited and 
evidently unwelcome guest. It is supposed that the remorals preference for the 
companionship of the shark arises from the fact that its presence answers as 
a protection, while the monster’s gluttonous feasts enable the remora to live a 
life of luxurious ease upon the scraps which fall from the shark s table, 1 ms 
arrangement is delightful for the remora, but somewhat irritating to the shark, 
who however, evidently submits to the inevitable. The remora takes its name 





EEL SHARK. OR STOMIAS BOA. 









8o 


THE HIVING WORLD. 


(ecHineis remora) from the ancient superstition that it attached itself to vessels 
and prevented their progress through the waves. It was currently believed, for 
instance, that Mark Antony’s vessel at the time of his defeat at sea was held 
fast in one position by remoras , which wantonly attached themselves to his keel. 
While these mythological stories have for the scientists only the value of stimu¬ 
lating to investigation, and to the discovery of more wholly natural explanations, 
they form so large and so beautiful a contribution to the resources of the writer 
and- speaker that they have an office in a popular work upon natural history so 
long as the line is drawn between the facts of science and poetical fictions. 

The Dog Fish is numerous alike in species and in its communities. 
Like the shark, it lays its eggs, attaching them to the weeds near the land 
by means of tendril-like projections. The large spotted dog-fish is common 
in English waters, where it is called the bounce; a smaller species infests 
the coasts of Scotland. It is abundant on the fishing banks of New York 
and Massachusetts, as amateur fishermen have occasion to remember, for 
many an anticipated catch of mackerel has been blighted by the appear¬ 
ance of a school 
of dog-fish. 
There are well- 
authenticated 
instances of 
man-eating by 
schools of dog¬ 
fish, where, as 
in one case, the 
victim was in¬ 
dulging in a. 
salt-water bath, 
and in another, 
when a child, 
fell from the 
deck of a ship. 
The famous 
Captain Paul 
Boynton, while 
swimming i n 
the Straits of 

Messina, was pursued and finally attacked by an immense dog-fish, but by 
the vigorous use of his knife, the captain was able to drive the creature 
away. On another occasion, two boys were regularly besieged by a school of 
dog-fish. While amusing themselves upon a half-sunken vessel, their own skiff 
floated away and left them without the means of regulating the length of their 
stay. Presently they become aware of the presence of a school of dog-fish, 
which for several hours made active war upon them. The fish would jump 
high into the air in their attempts to reach the human prey. The poor boys 
grew more and more frightened at their novel and perilous situation, and during 
the time which elapsed before they were discovered and released by a steamer 
they underwent every variety of thrilling and dreadful foreboding. 

The Rays ( Raice ) form a connecting link between the shark and the 



remora (Echineis neucrates ). 














THE LIVING WORLD. 


81 


skate. They differ from the shark chiefly in having ventral instead of 
lateral gill-clefts. With its long, flat body the ray covers its prey, and while 
thus holding it down, uses its singular ventral jaws for the conversion of its 
prey into food. Some species are oviparous, and others bring forth their young 
alive; the eggs, which may frequently be found on the beach, are called sea- 
purses. During its youth the ray resembles the shark, but as it matures it 
develops disproportionately its pectoral fins and changes to a rayed form. It 
has no distinct head; the tail is long, and slender; it has two dorsal fins, and 
sometimes a caudal one. The great size of the pectoral fins is responsible for 
the singular form of the fish ; its powerful jaws are filled with teeth which 
point back¬ 
wards, and 
they can be 
protruded at 
pleasure. 

The Bor¬ 
dered Ray, 
theRaiaBa- 
tis (notably), 
the Thorn- 
back, and 
the Clear¬ 
nosed Ray, 
are not un- 
frequently to 
be found in 
our markets. 

The Sea 
Porcupine 
swells itself 
up with air 
until it be¬ 
comes tem¬ 
porarily 
powe rless, 
and floats 
around, belly 
upward, un¬ 
til it is final¬ 
ly successful 
in expelling 
its incon¬ 
venient SUp- dog fish ( Squalus acanthias) and sea hound ( Mustelus cattis). 

ply. 

The Balloon Fish is frequently found on the coast of the United States. 
It is supplied with long, sharp spines which inflict the most poisonous wounds. 

The Puffer, or Swell Fish, is likewise a source of danger to fishermen, 
who frequently catch them with the hook, or find them entrapped in their nets. 

The Electric Ray (Torpedo vulgaris) weighs upwards of a hundred 
6 

































82 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



pounds, and stores its batteries between its gills and the pectoral fins. It has 
entire control of the exercise and severity of this electric shock. It is suffi¬ 
ciently strong to magnetize needles, decompose certain chemical substances, and 
even to produce the electrical spark of the Leyden jar, requiring similarly 

the completion 
of the circuit. 
The positive 
pole of this nat¬ 
ural battery is 
dorsal, and the 
negative pole is 
ventral. The 
Narcacian spe¬ 
cies is found on 
the Atlantic and 
the Pacific coasts 
of our country, 
and formerly 
was a tenant of 
European w a - 
ters. Whether 
it has immi¬ 
grated, or whe- 
THK sting KAY. th er the Euro¬ 

pean species has 

become extinct, cannot safely be stated, though the question has often been discussed. 

The Saw Fish (. Pristidce) have a shark-like body and a protruding snout, 
whose stout teeth make it resemble a saw. 

Nor does the resemblance stop here, for the 
saw-fish uses this feature as a weapon, which, 
reaching the length of six feet and the breadth 
of a foot, can do terrible execution. The spe¬ 
cies illustrated, pristis antiquarian , is found 
in the tropics, and makes war upon whales, 
herring and mackerel, whose flesh it saws 
out, since its teeth do not enable it to bite. 

Its attacks upon vessels are due not so 
much to its envy of the work of man as to 
a frenzy into which it is sometimes thrown 
by a parasitical crustacean, which, seeking 
its own ends, rather than being considerate 
of the saw-fish, burrows into its flesh. Some 
Spanish fishermen, having unconsciously en¬ 
tangled a sawfish in their nets, would have 
been dragged out to sea but for reinforce¬ 
ments from a man-of-war. Having been brought to the surface of the water 
by the united efforts of five persons, it happened to strike out towards the 
land, and, while thus engaged, a running bowline was thrown over its nose. 
Even then, with the aid of a tree as a capstan, thirty-five men failed to drag it 


BAIAOON FISH. 








THE LIVING WORLD. 


83 

ashore, and it was not until two hundred human hands pulled on the rope that 
it could be landed. While in the water its lashings were awe-inspiring, and 
even when upon the dry land it held the whole crowd at bay until a crafty Span¬ 
iard, mounting its back, cut 
through the joint of the tail 
with the same effect as 
though one broke the neck 
of a human being. It was 
found to weigh 12,500 
pounds (if Captain Single- 
ton is to be believed), to 
be twenty-two feet long, and 
eight feet in width. Its saw, 
or sword, was at least five 
or six feet in length, and 
but for the fact that its 
entanglement in the net had 
thrown the animal upon its 
back, and prevented its use 
of this weapon, instead of 
having been captured, it 
would have proved to be the 
captor. A friend of the au¬ 
thor was but a few years 
ago the hero in an exciting adventure with a saw-fish in Floridian waters. 
Together with a daughter (a mere child), he was fishing for sea bass, when, 

immediately after get¬ 
ting a bite, he found 
his line playing out 
with the most unexam¬ 
pled velocity. He con¬ 
tinued making a d d i - 
tions to its length un¬ 
til, after the fish had 
taken nearly four hun¬ 
dred feet of line, it sud¬ 
denly slackened the ten¬ 
sion, turned, and began 
swimming toward the 
boat, the gentleman 
meantime hauling in 
the slack and wonder¬ 
ing what new creature 
had eaten the lunch 
provided for the sea 
bass. When within six 
or eight feet, the crea¬ 
ture pushed its saw above the surface, and continued to strike it from side to 
side until it reached the row-boat and staved in the stern. Standing toward 



adventure with a saw fish. 










84 THE LIVING WORLD. 

the prow, to prevent the sinking of his little boat, the doctor plunged his oar 
into the mouth of the infuriated creature, and presently succeeded in driving 
it away. The internal commotion which had been excited evidently made the 

fish lose its bearings for, 
while none the less fero¬ 
cious, it failed to again hit 
the boat. The fisherman 
threw a noose over the saw 
and pulled most manfully 
for the shore, and when he 
reached it found his ex¬ 
haustion much greater than 
that of the saw-fish. It re¬ 
quired seven persons to drag 
it ashore, measured sixteen 
feet, and had a four-foot saw 
armed with twenty-two dag¬ 
gerlike teeth, which had not 
suffered from their exercise 
upon the boat. 

The Skate is a broad, 
flat ground fish, which is 
caught more frequently than 
is desirable for the pleasure 
or profit of the fisherman. 

The Tobacco-Box 
Skate (Raza erinacea) is a 
very common fish in the 
Eastern Atlantic. 

The Brier Skate (Ram 
eglanteria) is distinguished 
by the possession of spines. 

The Smooth Skate, or Barn-Door Skate (Raza levis ), is a sort of com¬ 
promise between the two species last named, for when young it is spinous, 
but grows bald with increasing age. 

The Raiadae are eaten by Europeans, but 
our wealth of natural provisions has led Ameri¬ 
cans to prefer fish of greater delicacy. 

The Sting Rays ( Trygonidce ) include about 
fifty species, of which we illustrate Trygon pas- 
tinaca. The whole family bear at the base of 
the tail spines which can do very serious dam¬ 
age. These spines replace the dorsal fin, and 
attain a length of nine inches. As the teeth 
of the frontmost spine wear out it is succeeded 
by the spine immediately behind, and so on 
until the series has been completed. It is 
found in shallow water which flows over a sandy bottom, and a wound from 
its spine has all the effect of a bite from a venomous serpent. 



GLOBE FISH. 



thornback skate (Raia clavata). 










THE LIVING WORLD. 


85 



common sturgeon, or sterlet (Acipenser sturio). 


The Whip Ray wields its tail like a horsewhip, and its sharp spines are 
capable of inflicting very painful wounds. The ray fish produces oblong eggs, 
which are provided with ribbons, by means of which they are fastened to plants, 
or rocks. 

The Globe Fish is curious alike from its form and its coloring. Its egg- 
shaped body has three dots which represent two eyes and a mouth; a queer 
little tail crops out from half way 
up one side. 

The Sturgeon is frequently 
found in European waters, is of the 
length of ten or twelve feet, and the 
weight of several hundred pounds. 

Its flesh resembles veal, and is 
esteemed “ a dainty dish to set before a king,” if one is to judge from the 
sumptuary legislation of King Henry, of England, who forbade all but roy¬ 
alty to feast upon this fish. 

The species of sturgeon known as Acipenser has reached the weight of 

several thousand pounds, 

^=£^■4 and is caught in the 

. —) Caspian and Black Sea, 

and in Russia, for the 
sake of the isinglass to 
be obtained from its air 
bladder. 

The Sterlet (Aci¬ 
penser ruthenus ) is use¬ 
ful to commerce by 
means of its roe, which appears upon the table in the form of what Shakespeare 
called the “ caviare to the general.” Bearing in mind the great weight attained 
by the sturgeon, the fact that the roe forms one-third of this, and that hundreds of 
thousands are annually caught, one will realize the sturgeon’s contribution to the 
support of mankind, whether by 
furnishing an article of diet, or by 
providing employment for fisher¬ 
men, merchantmen, and all en¬ 
gaged in transportation, com¬ 
merce, or the selling of provi¬ 
sions and ship stores. The spe¬ 
cies found in the Hudson River 
is used by the poorer classes as 
food, and its coarse flesh is some- , , ,, 

times called Albany beef, but it can never be regarded as a palatable dish. 

The Gar Pikes (. Lepidostida ;) are, with the exception of the Amencan 
species, fossil forms. They are clothed in a tough, scaly armor; have a beuk- 
shaped mouth, and illustrate the more rudimentary forms of lungs and of gill 

breathing. Qn Gar Pike, or Alligator Gar, (Lefndosleus tristcechus) , , is a 
familiar sight in Southern waters. Against it boys wage the most incessant 
warfare, for it interferes alike with their bathing privileges, and with their 



pike (Lepidosteus osseus). 



SEA boy (Julis vulgaris ). 




86 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


sive- 



OCEAN SCORPION, OR FATHER LASHER (CottuS bubdlis). 


fishing. The gar-pike must be looked at with the eyes of the naturalist, or 
else it will fail to be suspected of the mechanical beauty of which it is certainly 
possessed. 

The Pelican Fish {Eurypharynx pelecanoides) is a species discovered only 
seven years ago. It is a deep-sea fish, of which only a few specimens have 
been caught. Its jaws are five or six times the length of its cranium, and 
the lower is provided with a pouch after the manner of the pelican. Its body 
tapers off to a tadpole-like tail, and is spined its whole length. It is a most repui- 
-looking object, but holds high rank among the curiosities of fish life. 

The Catfishes are widely distributed, and everywhere a familiar object to the 

fisherman. The maxillary bone 
forms the support for the fleshy 
barbel which is so distinctive a 
feature of the catfish , and which 
so resembles the whiskers of a 
cat as to have given the fish its 
popular name. The spines of 
the pectoral fins, or horns, as 
they are popularly named, are 
among the painful recollections 
of our boyhood’s life. The ef¬ 
fects of wounds made by the 
catfish's spines are exceedingly 
painful, and not infrequently 
dangerous. The fishers at the 
Southern watering places are not seldom in need of prompt attention from the 
physician. The fish does not poison the flesh, but makes a jagged cut which 
is hard to heal. The flesh of the smaller river species is found very palatable 
by many persons, but the large-sized catfish are eaten only by those who do 
not object to coarse food. As a study for those interested in the evolution of 
animal life, the catfish family has 
special interest as showing its deri¬ 
vation from the sturgeon. 

The catfish’s belly softens when 
the eggs have been laid, and by sim¬ 
ply lying upon the eggs she presses 
them into her skin and carries them 
about with her. Contrary to the 
usual custom of fish life, the female 
is the one which assumes the task of a nurse. There is an Indian catfish 
which has a sucking disc between its pectoral fins, and which it uses in resisting- 
the strong and impetuous currents. One species, being found in the midst of 
matter thrown out by volcanoes, was supposed by Humboldt to live in subter¬ 
ranean streams, and to be unaffected by their high temperature—in short, to be 
like the fabled Salamander. Later naturalists, however, do not accept this 
explanation, but suppose that, having been poisoned by volcanic gas, they are 
swept along by the volcanic torrent. 

The Eel Pout ( Clarias anguillaris ) is a singular embodiment of the catfish 
structure and the appearance of the eel. 



SLY SILURUS, OR SHEAT FISH (5. Glattis). 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


87 


The Weis or Sheat Fish ( Silurus giants ), is one of the largest of Euro¬ 
pean fishes, frequently weighing four hundred pounds. It is a great, lazy gor¬ 
mandizer, lying in the mud and waiting until some victim swims into contact 
with its immense barbels. It is not an epicure, but a glutton, eating all fish 
but the perch ; destroying the water-dwelling birds, and not at all objecting to 
human flesh. Many stories of this man-eater are told, and though readily 
believed by the Turks and Hungarians, are considered by naturalists as not 
well authenticated. The dark green color of the upper portion of its body, its 
yellow abdomen, and the yellow and blue tints of its fins, make it seem to be 
clad in the gorgeousness of the mediaeval knight whose armor reflected in 
many a color the light which glanced upon it. The North American species 
of catfish is smooth and naked, its thin-cut lips adorned with eight barbels; 
fins short, but in the case of the dorsal, as well as that of the pectoral fin, 
sharply spined. 

The Stone Cat ( Noturus ) is the brook cat so common in the South and West. 

The Blind Cat ( Gronias nigrilabris) is a cave-dweller in Pennsylvania, 
and is supposed to be a recent variation. 

The Bull Head, or Horned Pout (Amiurtts), is sluggish, loves to grovel 
in the mud, will bite at any 
kind of bait, and exhibits the 
greatest indifference when 
hooked. 

The Mississippi Cat (Am- 
iurus ponderosus) frequently 
weighs two hundred pounds; 
and the Lake Cat ( Amiurus 
nigricans ) is also a weighty 

member of the fish community. wees, in coat oe MAii. (Hypostoneus eteutoculalus ). 

The Channel Cat (Icta- 

larus punctatus) is a very excellent article of food. The male carries the eggs 
in his mouth until the young are born, thus always giving evidence that the 
father is a good provider. 

The Doradinae are inhabitants of South American fresh-water streams, and 
are very curious because they belong to the nest-building fishes, and in sea¬ 
sons of drouth travel in great numbers in search of water. The procession is 
a nocturnal one, and frequently occupies several nights. Its carpal, or wrist 
bones, are lengthened, and support the short, stiff, claw-like pectoial fins, and it 
is thus able' to walk over the land. ... 

The Electric Catfish ( Malapterurus electricus ) is one of the curiosities 
of the Nile. Its battery extends over its whole body and can magnetize an 
iron rod. An unsophisticated fisherman, having stuck his knife-blade into an 
electric cat , was surprised by receiving a very severe shock. 

The Trichomyteridae are found at great altitudes upon the Andes, and 

in the gill cavities of larger species, 
their eyes placed below the level of the 

moiiLUjie Se yp hop h or i, or Cup-bearers, are an important food fish to the 
dwellers in tropical Africa. They possess two rudimentary electric organs, 
placed one on each side of the tail. 


some species take up their homes 
The Hypophthalmidae have 



83 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


The Gymnarchus Niloticus attains as much as six feet in length, and 
has a singular air-bladder, supposed to represent an imperfect lung. The 
Egyptians held in veneration the seyphophori , because they believed it to be 
one of the three fishes which, having each devoured a portion of the body of 
Osiris, defeated Isis in her attempt to gather together the scattered limbs of 
her husband. Osiris, having been slain by Typhon, was put into a chest and 
carried by the Nile out into the sea, where the body was mutilated by fishes. 
The soul of Osiris descended to the infernal regions, and continued its exist¬ 
ence under the name of Serapis. 

The Carp {Cyprinus carpio ) has been made celebrated by writers, inasmuch 
as it is a common and valued fish in Europe—especially in England. It varies 

in size from a foot to upward of three 
feet, and in weight has been known 
to reach one hundred pounds. It is 
noticeable likewise for its length of 
life, there being a well-authenticated 
story of its having reached the age 
of a century and a half. It is cul¬ 
tivated in Germany, Great Britain 
and America, and is probably least 
popular in our own country. It is 
carp ( Cyprinus carpio). of an olive brown, with a white belly. 

It should be eaten in the fall and 
early spring. It loves clear water, and as it grows very tame it is a great source 
of amusement to children. It seems to be true that frogs are destructive of 
the carp, upon whose head they will ensconce themselves, and like “ the old man 
of the mountain,” ride them to death, 
liar inhabitants of our aquariums. 

The orange-red color, variegated by 
black and brown, and the gleam of 
the scales make this carp quite a 
favorite pet. The fish was originally 
imported from China. 

The Piraya (Serrosalmo piraya ), 
while small in size, is beyond com¬ 
pare the most voracious fish that 
swims in any waters'. It is very 
numerous in the rivers of Brazil and Guiana, where vast shoals troop up 
and down the fresh-water courses like so many wolves ready to attack and devour 
every living thing. The front teeth are very sharp and set close, so that, as the 
jaws are powerful, it can bite out a piece of flesh with all the cleverness that 
might be shown by a knife. Authorities tell us that oxen are sometimes set 
upon and killed by these fishes before the animal can ford a stream of ten yards 
breadth. Travellers also claim that certain of the South American tribes place 
their dead in streams where the piraya are plentiful, in order that the flesh 
may be eaten from the corpse, leaving only the skeleton for sepulture. No 
one may venture in the waters where these voracious creatures abound, for no 
noise will serve to frighten them from attacking a human. The teeth are 
sometimes used to point and also sharpen arrows. 


The gold and the silver carp are fami- 



gudgeon (Gobio fluviatilis). 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


89 



The Gobio, or Gudgeon, is so easily caught as to have become a synonym 
for stupidity. It is a sightly fish, and has much to defend it against its evil 
reputation. 

The Sea Barbel (so named from the wattles about its mouth), has two 
pair of mustache-like projections on its mouth. 

The Father Lasher, or Lucky Proach ( Cottus bubalis), will, when 
irritated, erect its spines like quills upon the fretful porcupine. 

The Suckers ( Cato stomidce) are many in species, though possibly the 

buffalo-fish and the carp sucker are 
sufficiently well known to represent 
the family. 

The Anchovy ( Engraulus ) may 


barbed (Barbus fluviatilis ). 


ANCHOVY. 



he said to support, by itself, an industry. The Eastern coast abounds in these 
little fish, which are pickled and distributed throughout the country. 

The Sailor Sword-fish can furl and unfurl its dorsal fin as though opening 
and shutting a fan. As those found in Ceylon are twenty feet long, it is easy 
to imagine the spectacle pre¬ 
sented by these fish as they 
sail near the surface of the 
water. Its flesh is well-flavored 
and nourishing, and an excel¬ 
lent article of leather is made 
from its skin. 

The Sword-Fish ( Xiphias 

gladius') varies in length from ten to twenty feet, and its 
upper jaw is prolonged into an immense sword-like 
weapon. No fish is safe against its attack, and it has 
many a time been known to drive its sword through 
the massive timbers of large ships. Its flesh, when 
pickled, is esteemed by some persons, whose number is 
sufficient to convert the sword-fish into an article of 
foreign and domestic commerce, and the annual catch 
is valued at as much as fifty thousand dollars. The 
Mediterranean and New England coasts both abound in 
swordfish , whose capture is the source of a lucrative sword fish. 

industry. An old fisherman insisted that on one occa¬ 
sion, while all unthoughtful of any swordfish , his dory was pierced by one of 
them, and the sword penetrated his trouser-leg as far up as the knee. The 
swordfish is caught by harpooning, and furnishes all the variet}^ of excitement 
to be found in the whale fishery. The swordfish has an ancestry that would 
put to the blush the claims of a few generations. The merchantman Dread- 
naught was sunk by a leak produced by a blow from the sword of a fish. In 
the case of a whaler it was found that the fish had pierced through the copper 



9 o 


THE LIVING WORLD, 


sheathing, four inches of planking, next through a foot of solid white-oak tim¬ 
ber. The sword is now on exhibition at the British Museum. Three divers had a 
somewhat startling adventure, being attacked while under water by an immense 
sword-fish , which repeatedly knocked them down, but fortunately failed to penetrate 
their armor, and was finally driven away by a knife-thrust, given by one of the party. 

The Herring (Clupea harengus) is abundant in American waters, which 
in the spawning season they irradiate with the silver sheen of a countless pro¬ 
cession. Yarmouth, so well known to the readers of David Copperfield, is the 
headquarters of the herring fishery in England, and in good seasons the catch 
is as great as four hundred millions. The New England coast is the Ameri¬ 
can centre, as those know who have been to such fishing towns as Gloucester 



SAILOR sword fish ( Histiop.'iorus gladius). 


and Marblehead. The depredations of the oil factories have rendered the term 
“ moss-bunker” a term of reproach among Eastern fishermen for the vessels, 
and considering “ all as fish that comes into their net,” have greatly injured the 
slender rewards of the fisherman’s hard life. The yearly yield of oil is now 
greater in quantity and value than the whole fishery. 

The Sprat belongs to the herring tribe, but is not so well flavored. It is, 
however, largely used as food, and on the coasts of Europe furnishes employ¬ 
ment for hundreds of fishing smacks. 

The Smelt (. Argentinidce ) have a well recognized value as food, being 
rich and delicate. 

The Columbia River Smelt is so fat that it is not uncommon to run a 












THE LIVING WORLD. 


9 i 


wick through him and use him for illuminating purposes. But in addition to 
this oleaginous provision, the flesh is specially eatable as pan-fish. 

The White Fish ( Coregonus albus ) is considered a great table delicacy. 
It attains the weight of twenty pounds, but usually does not exceed three. It 
is not uncommon in the New York markets, as it abounds in Lakes Huron 
and Erie. 

The Grayling ( Thymallus ) is purplish-gray, its dorsal fin banded with 
purple and green, and colored with roseate spots. Its beauty would seem to 
entitle it to the compliment paid it by one of the early Church Fathers 
when he termed it “ the flower of fishes.” Its value as an edible is quite great,, 
so that it is use¬ 
ful as well as or¬ 
namental. 

Every one 
must have heard 
of salmon fishing 
on the Pacific 
coast. Five dis¬ 
tinct species have 
been described by 
the United States 
Fish Commis¬ 
sion. The Quin- 
iz at, or King 
Salmon (Colum¬ 
bia River) gene- 
rally weighs 
about twenty-two 
pounds, but Dad¬ 
dy Lamberts have 
been found weigh¬ 
ing one hundred 
pounds. The 
Blue-Black Sal¬ 
mon (Frazer Ri¬ 
ver) weighs only 
seven or eight 

pounds. The Sil- . , ~ , 

ver Salmon (Puget Sound) has about the same weight. The Dog Salmon 
attains a weight of twelve pounds, and the Hump-backed, Salmon some . six 
pounds. These species of salmon enter the rivers for the sake of spawning. 
Salmon-canning has developed into a giant industry, and there are but few 
eaters of fish who have not reason to be grateful for this addition to his 
Lenten fare. In a single year the Columbia River yielded nearly twenty-six 

million pounds of marketable salmon. , . r 

The Rainbow Trout ( Salmo iridens) has numerous and large scales, is ot 
a bluish color, silver, with red bands and red spots on the sides. 

The Salma fontinellis, or Brook Trout, is suggestive to the sportsman 
of the most varied and exciting pleasure. Whether it be m his moments of 



ATTACKED BY SWORD FISH. 































92 


TI-IE LIVING WORLD. 


patient waiting that he enjoys the scenery which surrounds the haunts of the 
hunt; whether it be the early hours and the health-giving tramp, or whether 
it be the excitement which this game-fish, when hooked, is able to afford in 

unstinted profusion, its name 



sprat (Clupea sprattus) and herring (C. harengus). 


always awakens recollections 
or excites desires which give it 
a chief place in his esteem. 
Words fail to tell what its 
charms are for the gourmand, 
for no one but the gourmand 
himself can adequately describe 
the pleasures of the palate. 
It is not found south of Vir¬ 
ginia, although no one has 
explained why our Southern 
brethren should be deprived of 
the sport and delicate flavor 
furnished by this famed son 
of the god of the waters. The 
brook-irout has many names, 
generally arising from his ap¬ 
pearance, which, in turn, seems 


to vary in color and somewhat in form with the latitude where it is found. 

The Common Pike 
(.Esox Indus') is a very ac¬ 
tive, powerful, rapid swim¬ 
mer, as its fame would lead 
•one to suspect. In the spring 
(March) it deposits its spawn 
in creeks, which empty into 
larger streams, though it is 
found in many lakes. It is 
remarkable for its voracity, 
ferociousness and longevity. 

One is said to have had an 
•engraved ring put around 
it, and to have been found 
alive more than two hun¬ 
dred and fifty years after¬ 
wards. The pike is regarded 
as a well-flavored fish, and 
while commonly reaching 
fifty pounds in weight, has 
been known to exceed three 
hundred pounds. 

The American Pike, 

or Pickerel {Esox reticu- EUROPEAN white fish {Abramis brama) AND GRAYLING (A. vimbra). 



Ameri ^ r ° m ^ ^° 0t t0 t ^ lree ^ eet * n l en gth, and is common throughout North 


















THE LIVING WORLD 


93 


The Muscalonge (.Esox estor) is not only the largest, but the most highly- 
prized member of the family. It is abundant in the great lakes. The strength 
of this fish may be illustrated by the story of the pike, which, though upon 



PIKE SEIZING A BIRD. 


land, was found securely holding a fox by the nose 
to rise from the water with a bound and seize a 


. They have also been known 
bird that had perched upon a 







94 


THE LIVING WORLD. 





limb projecting over and near the surface of a stream. The pike is so vora¬ 
cious and so pugnacious that it is called the fresh-water shark. 

Saw Perch ( Serranus cabrilla ) $ a Mediterranean species having a spinous 
dorsal fin, which is composed of from 
nine to twelve spines united. 

The Sea Devil, (Malthe vesper- 
tilio), or Bat-fish, is a creature some¬ 
what resembling the octopus, though 
its eight flat and broad arms are not 
provided with suckers. The illustra¬ 
tion on page 95 gives a better idea 

of its appearance than any printed European salmon (Mugil cephalus ). 

description could do. 

A singular adventure connected with harpooning a sea devil is said to have 
occurred. Four men, occupying two small skiffs, were fishing for sea devils . The 
boats had separated and each was pursuing its course independently of the 
•other, when suddenly they began to bear down upon each other with a rapidity 

altogether beyond the oar-craft of 
the human arm. By skill in steer¬ 
ing they managed to avoid a col¬ 
lision, but for quite a long while 
they would again and again ap¬ 
proach each other as though they 
were a pair of goats resolved upon 
each other’s destruction. It turned 
out that the crew in each boat had 
succeeded in fastening a harpoon into a colossal sea devil , and that in imi¬ 
tation of the whale they were dragging the boats hither and thither in a 
manner which rendered the story of Neptune and his dolphin steeds much less 
a matter of fable. 

The Blue-Fish (Pomatomus sal- 
tatrix) is the object sought by ama¬ 
teur fishermen in Atlantic waters, and 
has probably been responsible for 

greater waste of time and more fre- pike ( Esox Ludus). 

quent “ drawing of the long bow ” 

than any other fish that swims the waters. Undoubtedly the professional guides 
act in perfectly good faith, and do not intentionally rob the eager sportsmen; 
still they have the most unhappy faculty of taking one into the midst of a 


brook-trout (Salino fario). 



school of dog-fish, or of com¬ 
pelling him to spend his 
weary hours in catching sea- 
robins, or find time and tide 
and weather unexpectedly 
nine-pinned pike ( Poiypterus bichir). against them. Other per¬ 

sons, if they are to be be¬ 
lieved, have no such misfortunes, but the writer, though occasionally circum¬ 
venting the fish (and the fisherman), is willing to confess that most frequently 
he has found only the proverbial fisherman’s luck. It is said that blue- 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


95 



AFRICAN PIKE, FROM STANLEY’S FALLS. 


fish weighing fifty pounds have been taken; but four pounds is a more than 
average weight, and any one who has hooked a two and a half pounder has occa¬ 
sion to cherish the recollection both because of the grudging admiration of the 
professional fisherman, 
because of the struggle, 
and because of the rarity 
of the experience. The 
fish swim in schools, but 
the specimens caught by 
the writer must have 
been kept in while the 
others took their running. 

The blue-fish is found 
along the whole Atlantic 
coast, and likewise in the 

Gulf of Mexico; in Europe it seems to confine itself to the Mediterranean Sea. 

The blue-fish , like 
birds of passage, 
are migratory, 
starting north as 
early as March (the 
proper month for 
inaugurating new 
departures), and 
going south again 
in October. The 
blue fish is not a 
great favorite 
with those who 
would preserve at 
least specimens of 
the living species 
of fish, for it wages 
the most constant, 
relentless, and de¬ 
structive warfare 
upon every fish 
that comes • in its 

way, and seemingly is not content with gormandizing, but destroys fish with no 
higher motive than influences 
the most malicious small boy. 

As a food fish,the blue-fish is a 
great delicacy, but to the sports¬ 
man this is a small considera¬ 
tion in comparison with the 
healthful outdoor amusement 
which it provides, even when 
the sport is confined to the hunt¬ 
ing and the game-bag remains empty 



THE BAT, OR DEVIL FISH 



haimara ( Erythrinus trahira). 

The blue fish was unknown forty years 





















9 6 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




ago, so he may be accepted as a man of the period, thoroughly versed in water¬ 
ing stock, forming trusts, prospering, and absorbing the accumulations of others. 

The Pompano ( Tra - 
chynotus carolinus) is the 
choicest of Southern food- 
fishes, and therefore de¬ 
serves at least honorable 
mention. It is a small 
fish, swimming near the 
surface, and in some par¬ 
ticulars resembling the 
mackerel. 

The Pilot Fish (Nau- 
crates ductor ) belongs here, 
but has already received 
mention in connection with 


saw perch (Serranus cabrilla). 

the shark, with whom it maintains a 
The Moon Fish ( Vomer seti- 
pinnis ) is noted for its absurd form. 
The body of a sun fish is supplied 
with the most disproportionately long 
face, illuminated by great, staring 
eyes, and terminated by a large 
mouth, whose under-jaw protrudes 
in the most melancholy fashion. 
Just back of the head waves a long, 
spine-like, single hair. The small 


friendly and inseparable companionship.. 


Gii.t head (Chrysophrys aurata). 


croppie ( Perea fluviatilis). 

dorsal fin is set well back, and looks 
as though it would slide down upon the 
caudal fin. The belly is ornamented 
anteriorly by a second spine-like hair, 
and posteriorly by a series of small 
rays. Where the human being would 
wear his ears, the moon fish carries two 
absurdly small fins. 

The True Mackerel of commerce 
(scomber scombrus) is the most important 
fish, commercially speaking, that is found 
about our shores. It is a very beautiful 



fish, though small in 
size, the color being a 
steel-blue, striated with 
undulating bands of 
black, while the belly is 
of a lustrous white, 
reflecting a bright sil¬ 
very sheen when first 
taken from the water. 

Though frequenting our coast in vast numbers, mackerel are no less plen- 















THE LIVING WORLD. 


97 




tiful in the Baltic, North Sea, German Ocean, and all along the Scandinavian 
coasts, though its appearance is always erratic, since it is migratory in 
its habits. Their movement generally begins early in the spring, when the 
water temperature about harbors rises to 45 degrees. They feed on small 
Crustacea and calamars, nor do they reject the spawn and young of other fishes, 
and occasionally they devour their own. When their movement begins they 
appear and disappear as their prey sinks or rises, the weather having no little 
influence on their actions. 

The spawning season is in May and June, at which time they retire to 
rather deep water, and there deposit their eggs, which, upon fecundation, rise 
to the surface and are hatched 
by the sun. The young de¬ 
velop so rapidly that in two or 
three months their length is 
nearly eight inches, or within 
about four inches of the adult 
size. Though the growth is 
thus wonderfully rapid during 
the first months, it is a singular golden mackerel , or coryphene. ( Coryphana hippurus.) 
fact that thereafter the increase 

in size seems to be arrested, so that it requires nearly four years to attain the 
full size, which is from fourteen to eighteen inches. 

Mackerel are generally taken by means of seines, which are spread in the 
spring over the American fishing grounds, extending from Cape Hatteras to 
Labrador. The range is at first about fifty miles off shore, but the fish move 

shoreward, until the best fishing 
grounds are from three to ten miles 
seaward. The extensive character 
of this industry may be understood 
when it is known that a capital of 
more than $2,500,000 is invested in 
the fishery, in which more than 5000 
men are engaged. The value of 
the annual catch is estimated at 
$2,500,000, representing 111,399,855 
pounds of fish taken, o'f which 
103,142,400 pounds are pickled, 
4,957,455 pounds are canned, 1,100,- 
000 pounds used fresh, 1,100,000 
pounds used for bait, and 500,000 pounds for fertilizing purposes. 

The seines used in mackerel fishing are about 1200 feet long by 150 feet 
deep, the bottom being loaded with lead and the top buoyed with corks, which 
vary 5 in size, the largest always being at the centre. When the fishing is in 
shallower water a smaller seine is used, some 1000 feet long and 7° f ee t deep, 
but all boats now carry both sizes for obvious reasons. Though a much 
greater proportion of mackerel are taken by means of seines, hand-fishing, with 
lines and baited hooks, is also largely followed. The bait used is either pieces of 
salted menhaden or small mackerel, which are caught and salted for the purpose. 
These are cut up into small squares that are crowded on to the hook, and then 


archer fish. (Toxotes jaculator). 


7 


9 8 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




scraped until only the tough skin remains. This is very bright, the belly 
pieces being mostly used, and, when properly put on the hook, will last for 
some hours’ fishing. Each boat is provided with a large number of empty 
barrels, into which the fish are thrown when caught. During the time that a 
school is biting, an expert fisherman, handling a dozen lines, may take 2500 

fish in the course 
of six or eight 
hours. Usually, 
however, the fish 
are so erratic that 
they cease biting 
in two or three 
hours. 

The Tunny 

(Orcynus thyn- 
nus ), also called 
horse mackerel , is 
a member of the 

tunny. mackerel family, 

and much the 

largest of that genera, if not indeed the largest of all coy fishes. Speci¬ 
mens have been taken along the American shores that weighed fifteen 
hundred pounds, though this size is quite uncommon. In shape the tunny 
is very like a mackerel, and the body gleams with a silvery sheen, the 
upper half being of a lustrous steel-blue and the lower a pearl white. 
Though the fins show no surprising development, it is a very rapid 
swimmer, and takes its prey from 
every species of fish found in its 
habitat, even gorging dog-fish of eight 
pounds weight, and making bold attacks 
on the dolphin. While its flesh is solid 
and said to be good for food, especially 
in southern Europe, the Americans 
seldom eat it. The tunny is neverthe¬ 
less caught in great numbers for no 
other purpose than the oil it yields, as 
much as twenty-three gallons having 
been rendered out from a single fish. 

The means employed for its capture 
is generally that of harpooning, but in 
the Mediterranean, where the fishing 
for this species is carried on more ex¬ 
tensively, they are taken in immense 
numbers by means of special nets strung 
that after being baited and left in a proper spot for some days, is lifted by means of 
capstans on steamboats that are used for fishing purposes, until the fish within 
are brought to the surface and there killed with sharp hooks and spears. 

The Bonito (,Sarda mediterranea ), also belongs to the mackerel family, and 
is found on both sides of the Atlantic. It bears a close resemblance to the tunny, 


coral fish. (Chcetodon meyeri ). 
upright posts set in a large flooring, 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


99 



except that the body is smaller and comparatively broader. The color is the 
same, the only distinction being several dark stripes running obliquely from the 
back toward the central fins, which are not observable in the tunny. Its flesh is 
little used. 

The Dolphin ( Coryphcena hippurus ) is a frequent sight in tropical waters. 
It is about five feet in length, and has a yellowish body, with a black back, 
both body and back being spotted. It is often called the golden mackerel , and 
is not to be confounded with the cetacean dolphin. It is strikingly lustrous, 
but the iridescence of the 
fish when first taken from 
the water speedily under¬ 
goes the change which 
has touched the sensibili¬ 
ties and excited the 
imaginations of so many 
sea-going travellers. 

The Thread Fish, 
or Cutlass Fish ( Trichi - 
urus Upturns) is common 
alike in tropical waters 
and in temperate. From 
its coloring and shape, 
it is sometimes called the 
silver eel. It swims on 
the surface and is prone 
to jump frequently out 
of the water, for what 
purpose is unknown. In 
the region of Florida it 
is caught for the markets. 

The King of the 
Herrings has already 
received mention, but is 
introduced at this point 
to maintain the order of 
piscatorial succession. 

The Chaetodipterus 
faber, abundant on the 
coast of “ Old Virginia,” 
and called the porgy , is an 
entirely distinct species 
from the porgy of the the archer fish and ch^todon. 

Middle States. 

The genus Chaetodon includes many curious fishes. 

The Fly Shooter ( CJielmon rostratus ), found in Indian waters, is insecti¬ 
vorous, and as a bean-shooter rivals the most expert small boy. Upon discov¬ 
ering an insect it will shoot it with a drop of water ejected from its snout, and 
its precision of aim would put to the blush a Robin Hood of England. A species 
found in Java ( Toxotes jaculator) can shoot successfully at the distance of three 














IOO 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


feet. It is about the size and resembles in appearance (if we except the pro¬ 
boscis), a small Sun Fish. 

The well known Porgy ( Ephippus faber ) belongs to the same order, 
although its family is different and lacks the peculiarity of the fly-shooter. 

The Coral Fish, or Wandering Chaetodon, is a carnivorous fish; is dis¬ 
tinguished alike by its shape, habits and color. It is circular, or disc-like; its 
color is a yellowish-gold, marked by purplish-brown lines. These lines are greatly 
varied in form and direction so as to suggest the branching of the coral. 

The Surgeon Fish ( Teuthidae , Acanthurus chirurgus ) is a small fish, but 

its tail, armed as it is with a curved 
spine, or with stout prickles, inflicts the 
most painful wounds upon its incautious 
captor, doubtless intending to “ operate 
upon him for cataract,” that in the future 
his sight may be better. 

The Eagle Fish (Scz&na aquila ) 
abounds in European seas, especially 
the Mediterranean, a locality whose promi¬ 
nence in history is not confined to 
politics, state-craft, and war, but is equally 
pronounced in the study of animal life. 
It is about five feet long, swims in schools, 
surgeon fish. and being held in the greatest esteem 

by those who live to eat, is an object 
of interest to the fisherman. It makes a noise as it swims, and possibly this 
has led to its name o.n account of a forced resemblance to the scream of the 
eagle; or, it may be that its rapacious habits are responsible for the name. 
The sound emitted by the eagle-fish is, it must be confessed, more like a 

porcupine grunt than like the scream of the king of birds. 

Other species—the Sea Chub, the Weak Fish, the Louisiana Red Fish, 
the Black Sheep’s 
Head, of Lake Huron, 
are among the most 

inviting articles of food, 
and render the obser¬ 

vance of Lent anything 
but the abstinence which 
has given meaning to 

the phrase, “ lenten fare.” 

The Drum Fish, 
or Drummer Fish, is eagle fish. 

represented by a salt¬ 
water species and by a fresh-water species. 

The salt-water Drum ( Pogonias chromis) wears its beard upon its neck, 
as one might describe the barbels of the lower jaw. The interior dorsal fin, 
placed about a third of the distance from head to tail, is like the wing of a 
butterfly, and is higher, though shorter than the posterior dorsal fin, which is 
even and extends very nearly to the caudal fin ; the caudal fin is convex. The 
ventral fins are long, but narrow; the posterior one is just beneath the back 







THE LIVING WORLD. 


IOI 


dorsal fin, and the anterior one just in front of the anterior dorsal fin; it has 
also gill fins; all of the fins are spiny. The pharyngeal bones are joined into 
a triangle studded with teeth, and it is by means of these bones that the 
fish makes the noise which resembles the muffled beat of a drum. It has 
queer variations at different stages of its growth; its fins are largest when it 
is youngest, and the uniform silver-gray of the adult is preceded in the 
younger fish by several broad, dark, bar-like markings. It is to be found where 
the oyster makes its bed, and occasions great loss to the oysterman; it is 
a regular Goth, for it is not satisfied with what it requires for food, but 
destroys the oyster with the most wanton cruelty. 

The fresh-water Drum (. Haplodinotus grunniens or Sheepshead ), is to be 
found in many of our rivers and lakes. It is smaller than its marine 
relative, and its chin is unadorned by 
barbels. By some its flesh is con¬ 
sidered a delicacy, while others hold 
it in little esteem. 

The Scup, Scuppang, or New 
York Porgy ( Stenotomus chrysops , 
or argyrops), is caught in great quan¬ 
tities, and is marketable, although 
probably undervalued. 

The Sheepshead ( Diplodus pro- 
batocephalus ) is highly esteemed at 
the South, and its capture is always a 
delight to the home angler. 

The Red Snapper (. Lutjanus 
vivanus ), is another Southern fish, 
whose exportation has been rendered 
possible by our increasingly rapid 
transit. Those who are fond of 
fish regard the red snapper as a 
great delicacy, and pay in proportion 
for it. 

The Striped Bass ( Roccus line- 
atus ) is • a well-known fish of large 
size, averaging twenty pounds in weight 
and having a proportional length. Its 
flesh is highly prized, and though they 
are generally caught with a seine, 
lucky anglers at times enjoy the excit¬ 
ing sport of capturing them with the hook. The fresh water striped bass , or 
white bass (. Roccus chrysops) is esteemed alike by the sportsman and by the 
epicure. Most of the fishing stories of the Northwest have this fish for their 

subject. . . 1 , , 

The Common Ocean Sun-fish is almost circular, and its fins look as though 
they had accidentally been stuck into the truncated body. It sometimes weighs 
a quarter of a ton, and has been found five feet long by four feet thick. It is 
brilliantly phosphorescent, and looks like a living ball of fire. Its oil is valued 
by seamen as a panacea for bruises. 



drummers (Pogonias chromis ). 



















102 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



milestone sun-fish {Mold rotundus). 


The American Yellow Perch {Perea americana) needs no description, 
but affords too much pleasure to young fishermen to be passed without men- 

The Giant Perch, or Pike Perch (Ludopercd) , includes the blue, yellow, 

__ - r _ gray and wall-eyed perches. This fish abounds 

in the Saginaw fishing districts, and is highly 
valued alike for its flesh and for the sport 
with which when, spearing, it is attended. 
It has many an alias, wall-eyed pike , dory, 
salmon , blue pike and Jack salmon , being a 
few of them. It is a very important contri¬ 
butor to piscatorial commerce, or commercial 
fishery, and, moreover, is always of interest 
to the sportsman. 

The Black Bass ( Micropterus ) might 
have been included among the nest-building 
fishes, since its habits are very like those 
of the fresh-water sun-fish. It is a voracious 
creature and highly esteemed as a game-fish. 
The Pumpkin Seed {Enneacanthus gut- 
tatus ) is a favorite fish with young fishermen because of its beauty and abund¬ 
ance in small streams. 

The Cichlidae include the Tilapia Simonis, so called because being 
found in Lake Tiberias; and the male being in the habit of carrying the eggs 
in his mouth, it was supposed to com¬ 
ply with the necessary characteristics 
of the fish from whose mouth Simon 
Peter extracted the tribute money. 

The Tilapia Tiberiadis is also note¬ 
worthy because identified with “ the 
miraculous draught of fishes.” 

The Tautog, or Black-fish ( Tau - 
toga onitis ), is alike common, abundant, 
and valued as a food-fish. It is the 
occasion of very considerable Eastern 
fishing industries. 

The gayly-colored Parrot Fishes ( Scaridce ) are a frequent and beautiful 

sight as they swim in and out 
amidst the coral. Though men¬ 
tioned among the curiosities of 
marine life, it is equally remark¬ 
able for the antiquity of its prede¬ 
cessors, and for the esteem in 
which it was held by the ancient 
mariners of the Mediterranean. 

The Sea Hare, or Lump¬ 
fish ( Cyclopterus lumpus ). This creature has peculiar characteristics not 
found in other fishes, and the family to which it belongs is, therefore, a 
small one. The body is short, and ridged with tubercles in seven longi- 



black bass (Connna nigra). 



giant perch (Lucioperca sandra). 





THE LIVING WORLD. 


103 


LONGHEADED PIKE, EROM STANLEY EALLS. 


tudinal rows, some of which are warty and others bony. The average 
size is about five or six pounds, but specimens have been caught weigh¬ 
ing as much as eighteen pounds. It is found along the English and American 
shores, where it haunts muddy bottoms, and only seeks the shallows at the 
spawning season. At this time the male makes a pit in the sand, invariably 
selecting a spot between two 
stones. Here the female de¬ 
posits her eggs, which are 
vigilantly watched until the 
young come forth. When 
the young are a day old they 
attach themselves to the side 
of the male parent by means 
of their suctorial mouths, 
and do not quit their place 
for a week or more, until 
they have gained sufficient 
size and strength to provide 
for themselves. The sea-hare 
is a voracious creature, preying chiefly on mollusks and the spawn of other 
fishes. 

The Lump Sucker (Cyclopterus lumpus.) It may also be added to the 
“ nest-builders.” It has been known to lay as many as a quarter of a million 
eggs, so that it is certainly remarkable for its ability to multiply and occupy 

the (sub-marine) earth. 
The male is decidedly 
hen-pecked, for in the 
first place he takes en¬ 
tire charge of the eggs, 

• and later, swims about 
with his many times 
twins clinging to his 
body. 

The Climbing 
Perch (.Anabas scan- 
dens) is an habitant of 
Indian waters, which 
are as full of extra¬ 
ordinary animal life as 
are its jungles. To a 
slight extent it is am¬ 
phibious, for, being 
provided with internal cisterns, it can, by laying in its water supply, run 
about the land for days at a time. Its ability and disposition to run up tree- 
trunks has given it its popular name. It is edible and palatable, and therefore 
an object for pursuit. If as a fisherman one does not get a bite, he may 
become a hunter and prove to be more successful. 

The Siamese have, in lieu of the Spanish bull-fights, public contests 
between Fighting-fish (Betta pugnax ). 


lump-fish. 











io4 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



The Mullet {Mullus barbatus ) of the ancients has long been celebrated for 
the enormousness of the sums expended for it by the wealthy Romans, and for 

the tributes which their writers 
have paid to its flavor. 

The Swallower ( Chiasmodon 
niger) can swallow fishes larger 
than itself, but it has to pay an 
extraordinary price for this feat of 
necromancy, for the distention of its 
stomach always kills the magician. 

The Sculpin ( Cottus scorpio ) 
so frequently destroys the illusions 
and endangers the good temper of 
the fishermen that poetical justice 
seems to demand that the uninten¬ 
tional offender should receive hon¬ 
orable mention in a work which 
discusses curious, well-known or 
valuable fishes. Its large head and 
gaping mouth do not add to the 
beauty of the sculpin , but its fins 
and markings are both attractive 
to the eye when regarded from 
a proper distance. The sculpin is 
generally about six inches in length, 
and when not bothering the fisher¬ 
men hides under the rocks and the 
sea-weed. Its vivacity leads it to 
fall an easy prey to those who are 
not fishing for the compliment, and 
cumbing perch. its valuelessness being increased by 

the constant danger threatened by its 
sharp spines, leads to its harsh treatment. Perhaps its best use is as a symbol 
for that self-conscious irritability which is so often claimed as the “ perquisite 
of genius.” 

The Sea Raven is only a 
species of the sculpin family, as 
is also the Great Weaver, whose 
spines are particularly dangerous. 

The Growling Cock ( Trigla 
hirundo ) is somewhat of the color 
of sapphire; is abundant in Euro¬ 
pean waters. It is eaten, although 
its flesh is somewhat dry. This 
species might have been described 
among the flying fish, although 
its flight is purely one of the 
fisherman’s imagination, though another species is a flyer. The American 
species, the sea robin ( prionotis ), is said by some gourmands to be a table 


sea barbee {Mullus barbatus ). 



















THE LIVING WORLD. 


io 5 




delicacy, but thus far few have been found willing to make the experiment. 
Any one who has visited the seashore must have become acquainted with 
this fish, whose only fault is that of disappointing an over-eager fisherman. 
The peculiar and not unmusical sound made by the sea robin is always interesting 
to children. It is a queer-looking object, but if one avoids uncalled-for interfer¬ 
ence with its spines it will hardly be found repulsive. 

The Swallow Fish (. Dactyloptera volitans ) varies in length from half a foot 
to a foot and a quarter. The pectoral fin is sufficiently extended to admit of 
the fish’s sustaining 
itself in the air for a 
short period, and hence 
appearing to fly. It is 
not, however, a true 
“ flying fish.” It is 
singular in form and 
appearance, and occurs 
in the waters of Europe 
and of America. It has 
already received suffi¬ 
cient notice among the 
flying fish. 

The Sting Fish, 

Sting Bull, Great 
Weaver, or Chanti¬ 
cleer (Trachinus draco ) 
is a deep-water marine growling cock ( Trigla hirundo). 

fish. It is spined the 

whole length of its back and belly, and is, therefore, a very uncanny sight to 
the inexperienced fisherman. It looks as though the ordinary skeleton of the 
fish had separated in the middle, and was escaping through the back and belly. 

The Ocean Butterfly, or Ocellated Blenny (. Blennius ocellaris ), is a little 
fellow only about three inches in length. It lives among the weeds, and its 
pale-brown color makes it hard to distinguish it from them. Its dorsal fins 
extend from the head to the tail, and from their size and arrangement suggest 

the wings of the butterfly. 

The Oar-fish (. Regalecus banksii ) 
has at 'times been confounded with 
the sea-serpent. It has been found of 
as great length as twenty feet. Its 
ventral finrs are simply two dagger¬ 
like prongs just back of the throat, 
and pointing obliquely toward the tail. 
The body is oar-like, and is propelled in a sinuous manner The head is 
feathered with spines after the fashion of an Indian chief, and its back is adorned 

WlA The" common Cod-fish (Gadus morrhud) is doubtless the most interesting 
fish when regarded commercially. The largest specimen so far known weighed 
one hundred and sixty pounds; the average weight is from fifty to sixty pounds. 
The cod is found as far north as the Arctic Ocean, and as far south as the 


great weaver (Trachinus draco). 





106 THE LIVING WORLD. 

thirty-fifth degree of latitude. The cod is voracious, and by no means a delicate 
feeder; his perfect digestion has at times rendered him of great service to the 
conchologist, who procured from the stomach of the fish specimens so rare as to 
have been otherwise unattainable. The cod does not, when spawning, approach 
the shore, but simply entrusts its eggs to the mercies of the deep sea; when it 

is remembered that a 
single cod is capable of 
producing a family of 
nine millions, it will be 
evident that this re¬ 
markable fecundity is 
at least an adaptation 
to the use which the 
fish serves in human 
economy. 

The Haddock 

(Melanogrammus csgle - 
finus) is a near relation 
of the cod-fish, it .is 
small by comparison, 
and does not swim so 
far northward. Under 
the popular name of 
“finnan haddiesfi the 
fish is doubtless known 
to every one who has 
been on the Atlantic 
coast, or whose traditions lead him to help maintain the fisheries from which 
Massachusetts has drawn so large a portion of its accumulated wealth. 

The Pollock (. Pollachino virens) is another species which has not yet become 
so highly prized as a food fish. It is an odd fact that its 'young seem to be 
infatuated with the Robinson Crusoe habit, for they pass much of their time 
under the umbrellas of 
the jelly fish. 

The Whiting (Mer- 
langus vulgaris ) is a small 
but delicious European 
cod-fish, but readers of 
Charles Dickens and 
others who describe Lon¬ 
don life will be familiar 
with its name and the 
high esteem in which it 
is held by the English epicures, who are exceedingly blessed by its abundance. 

The Hake (. Phycis ) is abundant on the Atlantic coast and valued by fish¬ 
ermen. 

The Halibut (. Hippoglossus vulgaris ) is a shallow-water fish found in the 
northern portions of both the Atlantic and the Pacific. It generally weighs 
aoout one hundred and forty pounds, but has been found weighing four hun- 




BUTXERFI.Y FISH. 












THE LIVING WORLD. 


io? 


dred pounds. In length it varies from five to seven feet, and is usually half 
as broad. Though the halibut is not a table delicacy, it has been a source of 
revenue to those “ who go down into the sea in ships.” Till about fifty or 
sixty years ago Massachusetts Bay was a favorite resort of the halibut , until 
the activity of the fishermen drove them away. The fish now have to be 
sought in relatively deep water. The halibut is a ground fish, and its flat¬ 
ness and coloring seem an intentional provision for the life which it is to lead. 
It has been known to kill its prey by repeated blows of its tail. 

The Turbot ( Psetta maxima) has become celebrated as a table delicacy, 
but one must go abroad for it. 

The Plaice ( Platessa vulgaris ) is marine, but prefers the banks or muddy 
bottoms. It is common in Europe, and is taken either by trawls or by spear¬ 
ing. It has the form of what is commonly called the sun perch, and is dotted 
with curious white spots. 

The European Flounder (. Platessa flesus) is found in the muddy bottoms 
at the mouths of rivers, but it will 
flourish in any kind of water. It is 
regarded as indifferent eating. 

The Platessa Plana, found in 
New York, is highly prized as a deli¬ 
cacy ; it is usually pale-green in color. 

The Platessa dentata (or summer 
flounder) is. also a favorite with fish- 
fanciers in New York. Its peculiar 
flat form has made the fish prover¬ 
bial. 

The Dab (. Platessa limanda ) is 

abundant in England, and prized for 
the uses of the table. 

Four-horned Trunk-fish (Ostra¬ 
don quadricornis) . This is a most 
singular fish, as a brief description 
will show. The body is polygonal in 
form, and is encased in a series of 
hexagonal plates so rigid in their union as to permit of no laxity of 
the trunk. The teeth are well formed, eight above and as many below, 
which curve backward as in the snake. Projecting from above the eyes 
are four sharp horns that give at once a hideous and grotesque appearance to 
the creature. It is pretty generally distributed in the temperate waters, and 
species are common in the tropics. The flesh is sometimes used as food, peo¬ 
ple of Florida and the West Indies esteeming its flesh as a great delicacy 
when baked in its own shell, but not a few persons declare that the flesh 
is poisonous. 

The Stickleback ( Gasterosteidoe ) has been described among the “nest- 

builders.” . . 

The Tobacco-Pipe (. Fistularia tobaccaria) is a tropical fish, eel-like m 
appearance, but with a long pipe-stem-like snout, which, from its size, seems 
to suggest resemblance to the sword-fish, with which, however, it has no other 
relationship. 



WOLF-FISH. 













io8 


THE LIVING WORLD, 


The Snipe-fish (Macrorhamphosus scolopax ) is a common European fish, 
whose snout resembles the bill of the snipe, although its body is much more 
suggestive of a hog. 

The Sea-horse is common in tropical waters; it has the head of a horse 
(or rather of the knight of the chess-board), and a prehensile tail with which 
it holds on to the sea-weed. The creature is a very interesting object when 

in an aqua- 
r i u m. The 
sea horse is 
not only inter¬ 
esting on ac¬ 
count of its 
very singular 
appearance 
but for its 
habits as well, 
which are de¬ 
cidedly eccen- 
t r i c. The 
little crea¬ 
ture, scarcely 
more than 
three inches 
iu length, is 
able to dart 
about with 
extraordin- 
ary celerity, 
in resem¬ 
blance to the 
movements 
of the craw- 



9 . plaice . (Pleuronedes platessa.) 



flounder. {PI. flesus .) 11 . dab. (PI. limatida.) 
fish, but instead of seeking concealment it rests 
only upon such object as it may grasp by means 
of its tail. Here the grotesque creature rests 
until again disturbed, looking with curiosity from 



FOUR-HORNED TRUNK FISH. 

side to side until, presto! it is gone, only to as suddenly reappear at another 
place, always manifesting a ludicrous eccentricity. 





























THE LIVING WORLD. 


109 


The Globe Fish ( Cirrhosomus turgidus ) is called also the swell-fish, or 
egg-fish. Though when in a state of repose a somewhat elongated and sym¬ 
metrical fish, it will, when caught, inflate itself with air and become an almost 
perfect globe, ornamented with spines. By tickling its belly the fish can be 
made to repeat the process several times, after which it expires from its frog¬ 
like effort to swell itself into an ox. Along the Atlantic coast is another species 
of swell-fish tetraodon whose habits are very similar to those of the globe-fish. It is a 
small species, distinguished for its green eyes, rough, frog-like skin, and generally 
repulsive appearance. This illustration shows the creature distended with air. 
The tropical representative of the globe fish family ( Tetraodon fcihakd) is 
frequently called the porcupine fish. 

The African Scaly Salamander (. Protopterus annectans) belongs to the 
African tropics, but can generally be found in the collections of our museums. 
It is a fresh-water fish and is insectivorous, 
sharing with man a fondness for fish and frogs, 
but adding to the rarity of its diet by includ¬ 
ing insects. It bears a striking resemblance 
to the salamander, but has delicately-fringed 
pectoral and ventral fins, arranged in pairs 
towards either extremity of the body, and the 
gills have filament-like projections. It is five 
or six feet in length, covered with cycloidal 
scales, and inhabits ponds, where it builds 



the toad, or sweevfish ( Tetraodon ). 
nest in the mud. In the 


absence of water it can substitute its lungs for the work done by its gills r 
and inspire air directly instead of indirectly through water. The mud-fish is a 
species very like the salamander, with similar habits. The engraving on 
the next page shows the creature in its winter burrow. 

The Eyed Pteraclis, though not a member of the flying fish family, bears 

some resemblance 
to creatures of that 
class, in the re¬ 
markable size of 
its dorsal and ven¬ 
tral fins, the latter- 
being confluent, 
with the anal fins. 
The name is given 

on account of a dark-blue round spot located near the upper edge of the very 
expansive dorsal fin. It is occasionally met with about our American shores, 
but its special habitat is along the Mozambique coast. It is a very beautiful 
fish, having burnished sides and a golden gleam on the tail and pectoral fins, 
while the expansive fins are tinted with dark blue. Its length is two feet. 



AFRICAN SCALY salamander (Propterus annectans). 


MAMMALIA OF THE SEA. 

The Cetacea are the water representatives of the mammals. They breathe 
air directly and aerated water. Their shape and their aquatic life is respon¬ 
sible for the popular notion that they are fishes. Porpoises, dolphins, walruses, 
grampuses and narwals are cetaceans. 

The Straight-finned Whale ( Orca rectipinna ) is common on the Pacific 
coast, but is almost valueless. These creatures are here introduced because 





no 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


they make a natural transition from the fishes, and because they were for so long 
a time confounded with the fishes. 

The Narwhal, or Sea Unicorn, is remarkable for its horn of twisted ivory. 
This springs from the upper jaw, is used as a weapon, or as an implement for 
digging, etc., and has played no unimportant part on occasions when the nar¬ 
whal has vented its wrath upon vessels. 

The narwhal is greatly esteemed, for, independent of its own value, it is 
regarded as the avant-courier of the whale. The ivory of its tusk is valued 
and put to many uses, among which may be mentioned the manufacture of 
lances used in killing narwhals. It descends but a little way into the sea, and 

after rising to the surface is so exhausted as 
easily to fall a victim to the fisherman. Schools 
of narwhals will surround a vessel, and remain 
patiently until slain for their oil and their ivory. 

The one-tusked narwhal , or sea unicorn , is 
the subject of many an antique fable, and later 


there lurked within the chalice not liierely the 
poison of wine, but poisons added by ambitious 
or vindictive men and women. The story of 
Roman and Italian politics is rendered exciting 
by tales of poisoning effected usually under the 
guise of hospitality and good cheer. Hence it 
is not surprising that the unicorn's horn com¬ 
manded enormous prices, and was in great 
request by those who could afford its purchase. 
It may even be a relief to know that in spite 
of Tennyson’s protests against “ these days of 
the men of mind,” the adulteration of this anti¬ 
dote, or its conversion into “ a poisoned poi¬ 
son,” was neither unknown nor uncommon. 
The appearance of the unicorn in Great Brit¬ 
ain’s coat-of-arms is undoubtedly due to a belief 
that the tmicorn was useful as a friend and 
dangerous as an enemy. The exact office of the 
narwhaPs tusk is not certainly known; it is 
supposed to use it as a means of effecting a 
landing and in its contests with the Greenland 
whale. It has been known to drive its tusk through the metallic sheathing and 
stout timbers of large vessels, but it is supposed that this was done not with 
any malice toward the ship, but from a frenzied irritation and possibly an un¬ 
intentional collision. 

The Bay Porpoise (. Phocoena somerina ) is a familiar sight on the Pacific 
coast, as it prefers bays and harbors and is quite fearless. 

The Atlantic Porpoise {Phocoena communis ) is a familiar sight to the sea¬ 
going travellers, and even to the thousands who daily pass up and down; they 
are neither strange nor without interest. 


it was supposed to possess the power of ren¬ 
dering poisons innocuous by the mere insertion 
of its tusk or horn. There was a period when 












Ill 


THE HIVING WORLD. 




The Dolphin of the Pacific Ocean (.Lagenorhynchus obliquidens) frequently 
appears m schools, and gambols around a vessel. It is greenish-black above, 
pure white below, and 
striped cn the sides with 
alte-ante stripes of black 
and gray. 

The Mediterranean 

Dolphin (Coryphcena hip- 
purus) is bluish-green above, 
citron below, the pectoral 
fins lead and yellow, the 
ventra lfins black above 
and yellow below, the cau¬ 
dal fin yellow, and the iris 
golden; moreover, it has 
gold and azure reflections. 

Their iridescence when 
caught proceeds from their 
muscular action and is 
more beautiful thau the 
most gorgeous sunset o r 
the most vivid rainbow, 
but like other beautiful 
fishes, the luster and iri¬ 
descent hues very soon 
fade when it is taken out 
of the water, especially if 
it be exposed to the sun. 

The dolphin was re¬ 
garded by the Greeks as 
sacred to the god Apollo, 
since when founding his oracle at Delphos, he appeared under the form of a 
dolphin. He is also represent as being borne upon the back of a dolphin and 

striking 
the h a r p- 
strings of 
his sweet 
instrument, 
making 
music to all 
creatures 
of the sea, 
that follow¬ 
ed him, like 
the rocks 
and trees 

school of narwhals. are fabled 

to have followed Orpheus, but, unlike Orpheus, Apollo had no beautiful love 
doomed to early death, else the dolphin might have figured even more prominently. 


EYED PTERACLIS. 






112 


THE LIVING WORLD. 





PORPOISE. 


Hence the dolphin became one of Apollo’s symbols, and wove many a fiction of 
the rescue of Apollo’s favorites by means of the dolphin. The poet Phalanteus 
having been wrecked at sea, was safely carried ashore by a dolphin, since Apollo 
was the protector of poets! Phalanteus, after the custom of pre-historic antiquity, 
then founded the Italian town of Tarentium, although except for the interpo¬ 
sition of mythology he must have suffered from the lack of assistants. So, too, 
a dolphin saved Arion from the plottings of sailors. For having the bad habit of 
carrying with him the vast wealth of which he was possessed, Arion excited the 

cupidity of the sailors as he 
was voyaging from Tarentium 
to Corinth. Pleading for a last 
opportunity to exercise his musi¬ 
cal skill, Arion’s melodies drew 
together a school of fascinated 
dolphins (amongst whom doubt¬ 
less was the rescuer of Pha¬ 
lanteus), and having thrown 
himself into the sea, Arion was,, 
through the care of Apollo, 
carried triumphantly to Corinth 
by the obedient slaves of the 
beautiful god. 

The experience of Arion, 
as it will be remembered, was 
completed by the dealing out of 
poetical justice in the execution of the sailors and the securing of his slowly 
amassed wealth. The dolphin has been honored even in modern history, 
having given its name to the Princess of France, to one of the fairest 
princes of this sunny land, and to one of the best editions of the classics. 
Doubtless the harm¬ 
lessness of the dol¬ 
phin, his inferior value 
to the fisherman, his 
beauty of color, and 
the plaintiveness of 
his dying moan have 
united to make this 
creature a favorite 
theme for the sailor, 
the sea-going traveller, 
and the poet. The air bladder of the dolphin furnishes much of the isin¬ 
glass known to commerce, although the sturgeon also contributes, from which 
latter, however, the larger supply is obtained. A popular error has long been 
held that mica is a similar substance, whereas it is a mineral. 

The Sperm ’Whale (Physeter mcicrocephalus ), is the largest of the species, 
though not so long as the rorqual. It reaches a length of from seventy to eighty 
feet its head being at least a third of this distance. It is generally found in 
schools of a varying number and is a familiar sight to those who know the 
sea. Its remarkable endowment of mouth and teeth, and its ability to open 



common dolphin (Dolphinus delphis). 



THE LIVING WORLD, 


“3 

its jaws at the most remarkable angles, together with its strength and courage, 
have made the sperm whale the frequent subject for story tellers. In addition 
to its supplies of oil, we owe to it the ambergris so well known in commerce 
as an essential ingredient of the perfumery which graces the toilet table. The 
“ spouting ” of the 
whale is a device 
for ridding itself 
of the water which 
has contained its 
food; the vapor¬ 
ized water thrown 
to a great height 
and having the 
f o r m of the si¬ 
phon, is one of the 
curiosities of life 
aboard ship. As 
is well known the 
harpooning is 
done from small 
boats which the 
whale is suffered 
to drag hither and 
thither until, ex¬ 
hausted by loss 
of blood, it yields 

itself an easy prey. At times the whale attacks the boat and, such accidents as 
the smashing of whale-boats is a frequent and often fatal occurrence. On one 
occasion a whaleman in falling from the air into which he had been thrown by 
a blow o f the whale’s tail, landed upon the whale’s back and holding to the 

harpoon, rode 
several miles be¬ 
fore it occurred 
to him to let go 
and suffer him¬ 
self to be res¬ 
cued by his com¬ 
rades. The oil 
is found i n a 
cavity on the 
right side of the 
head, and as 
much as ten 
barrels is not an 
uncommon yield. 
in pursuit op the sperm whaee. The North¬ 

ern Rorqual, 

though slimmer than the Greenland whale, exceeds one hundred feet in 
length. Whales are both social and domestic in their habits. They like to 
8 



















THE LIVING WORLD. 


114 

travel in schools, to gambol with the stimulus of emulation, and they display the 
greatest devotion alike towards their mates and towards their young. The 
herbivorous whales are gentle out of proportion to their size, but they can, in 
defence of their young, or when irritated by harpooning, display the most 
reckless and the most invincible courage. A trustworthy account is given of 
a whale which, having been wounded by coming into collision with a ship, 
deliberately attacked it again and again, until finally the ship was sunk and 
the crew compelled to take to their boats. It quite frequently happens in 
the whale fishery that boats will be destroyed and the seamen compelled to 
swim for their lives. Only an experienced and cautious fisherman can be 

trusted with the harpooning of a 
whale, for as it uniformly rushes off 
when struck, the fouling of the har¬ 
poon cable would mean utter destruc¬ 
tion to the boat’s crew. Men natu¬ 
rally like adventure, and readily adjust 
themselves to new exigencies. Hence, 
after one has learned the business 
there must be much that is exhilarat¬ 
ing in being towed along at lightning 
speed by this leviathan of the deep, 
who, however noble his struggle, will 
finally discover that his immense 
skill and tireless persistence of his 
weaker captors. After a whale is powerless it is towed to the side of the 
vessel and there cut up, the waste portions being left to the desiccating 
influence of the sea. Though whales have diminished in number, the march 
of progress has enabled the whalers to improve upon the antique method of 


ARCTIC EIN-WHAEE. 

harpooning by hand. They now carry a Gatling harpoon, which fires into 
the body of the whale not only a series of hooks or flukes, but a torpedo, which 
explodes with fatal effect. 

The Whalebone Whales have, like Richard the Third, teeth when they are 
born, but before completing their foetal existence replace them by plates of whalebone. 

Whalebone is not really bone at all, but simply horny plates serving to retain 
small animals until the whale is ready to swallow them, or so that he shall not 
choke himself by swallowing what is not suitable for food. 




SOUNDING- 


strength is no equivalent for the wary 







THE LIVING WORLD. 


“5 

The California Gray Whale ( Rhacianedes glaucus) lives mostly in the 
shoaler water of bays and gulfs. It does not exceed forty-five feet in length 
and yields about twenty or thirty barrels of oil. A record of whales seen shows 
that as many as forty thousand of the California gray whale have been known 
to pass in -a single season. 

The Hump-Backed Whale (. Megaptera versabilis ) has a hump upon its 
back, a lump on its lower jaw, and a number of small eminences on the top 
of its head, and is certainly entitled to being regarded as “ your eminence ” 
among whales. It is an oil giver, but its whalebone is valueless. This whale 
is practically ubiquitous and is a very common sight at sea. As it lies on its 
side to suckle its cub, or as a male and female conduct their courting with 
love taps and other human peculiarities, the creatures are comically suggestive 
of an unwritten satire upon the human being. 

The Sulphur Bottom ( Sibbaldius sulfurens ) is the largest living mammal, 
and is supposed to be the largest specimen that has ever existed. It is worth¬ 
less to the fisherman, which is possibly quite as well, as its extraordinary 
strength and rapidity, and its lack of gregarious habits, would be more likely 
to furnish fresh illustrations of “ a fisherman’s luck” than to prove a profitable 
return for hard labor. 

The Razor Back (. Balcenoptera musculus ) is very large and powerful, colored 



bowhead Greenland whale ( Balcena mysticetus). 


black above and white beneath, and thinning out from head to tail like the 
edge proceeding from a thick-hefted knife. It is a producer of oil and of whale¬ 
bone. 

The Bowhead, Greenland Whale, or Polar Whale (. Balcena mysticetus ), 
though smaller and perhaps less curious than many other species, is the one 
which plays the largest part in human economy. It varies from forty to sixty 
feet in length, and a single whale has been known to yield eleven thousand 
gallons of oil and more than three thousand pounds of whalebone. It feeds 
upon the small crustaceans and mollusks which fall into its mouth as the 
whale swims along, using its baleen, or wliale-bone, as a strainer. It has been 
known to use up a mile of harpoon rope, and has the ability to stay below the 

surface for more than an hour. . ...... 1 

The Bonnet Whale, or Right Whale (. Balcena sieboldu ), is very much 
like the bowhead, but has an excrescence or bonnet on its upper jaw. It is an 
oil-well and artificial vertebrae manufacturer. The whale not only stands on 
the borderland which represents the transition of fishes to mammalia, but its 
history is so old and so consecutive that its name has become a household term. 




n6 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



As early as the time of Alfred the Great, of England, whale fisheries were 
known, and of modern peoples, the Spanish and Portuguese, the Italians, the 
Dutch or Hollanders, the English and the American Yankees have succeeded 
to the control of the fishery. A whale-ship starts out nowadays for a three 

years’ voyage, 
and carries a 
crew of up¬ 
wards of thir¬ 
ty-five men. 
The smaller 
boats used for 
the pursuit of 
the whale are 
about thirty 
feet in length 
and six feet 
wide, prowed 
at each end. 
The oars are 
held by thole¬ 
pins, and the 
harpoon line 
is paid out 
through me¬ 
tallic grooves. 
An outfit for 
one of these 
boats is more 
varied than 
the miscel¬ 
lany gathered 
together for a 
school pic-nic. 
Extra sup¬ 
plies of oars, 
paddles, row- 
locks, thole¬ 
pins, har¬ 
poons, lances, 
knives, ropes, 
hatchets, a 
compass, a n 
anchor, boat¬ 
hooks and 

a death wound. finally the 

bomb-thrower 

or whale Gatling gun. Every one of the crew has. special duties, and there is 
the strictest observance of that order which is “ Heaven’s first law.” 

The decreasing supply of whale oil has been compensated by the many 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


nj 

inventions and discoveries which almost from day to day change our methods 
of living, and prevented an inconvenience which, before the time of gas, coal 
oil, and the electric light, would have been extreme. 

The whale has to fear not only man, but the grampus. Commodore Wilkes 
gives a thrilling account of a fight between a whale and a grampus, in which 
unequal contest the whale could oppose nothing but his strength in resistance 



whale attacked by a school of grampuses. 


to the grampus, which clung with the tenacity of a bull-dog to his mouth, and 
gradually caused him to bleed to death. As the grampus is said to eat nothing 
but the whale’s tongue, his gormandizing rivals the fabled dishes of Roman 

gourmands^ enemy q{ the w hale j s sa id to be the thresher-shark, which, like 
the grampus, seizes the monster, and not only bites ferociously but thrashes 
the poor creature with its long tail, and thus literally rides the whale to death. 
The sword-fish is also said to persecute the great leviathan, as does th , e 
narwhal, by darting upward and striking its murderous weapon into the whale s 
belly, and continuing its unprovoked, but no less furious attack, until the 
great, but helpless, creature expires. 













n8 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



The whale fisheries towards the close of the sixteenth century had employed 
over two hundred and fifty Dutch ships and upwards of fourteen thousand 
Dutch sailors, not to speak of the smaller contributions of other nations then 
engaged in the whale fishing. The supply of hardy navigators required to 
man the many vessels of discovery, which followed in the path of Columbus, 
was doubtless due to the value of sea-fishing as an industry, and the desire 
to gain what could readily be converted into gold. No period of American 
history is richer than the period of discovery in interest for the lover of ex¬ 
citing adventures. Fascinating as it is to read about the unknown, the strange, 
the terrible, the search therefor requires many of man’s most valued quali¬ 
ties, and while increasing his knowledge, adds uniformly to the accumu¬ 
lated wealth of mankind and to the extension of its industries. The navigator 

created opportunities 
for many and varied 
sorts of labor, not only 
directly by employing 
sailors and shipwrights, 
and by requiring an 
infinite number of ship- 
stores, but even more 
by the product which 
he brought home, and 
by the stimulus which 
his novel experiences 
gave to the imaginations 
of men. During the 
time of English discov¬ 
eries in America, it will 
b e remembered that 
Spain had grown so 
rich that its galleons 
bearing gold became a 
Greenland whai,e. favorite obj ect of piracy. 

_ Sir Walter Raleigh, it 

will be remembered, got himself into trouble with his king, because in or- 
der to redeem his promise of returning later with gold, he selected as the 
location for his mining the Spanish ships. So too the Americans, during the 
Revolution, derived aid from the fact that the English fisheries being inter¬ 
rupted, those who had no other occupation were violently opposed to such Par¬ 
liamentary action as destroyed their means of livelihood. Thus are the selfish 
interests of men overruled to beneficent ends by Divine providence. The 
material instinct of the whale has been less dwelt upon than similar other ani- 
rnals, probably because the whale is less open to observation, and because the 
sailor s yarn has come to be regarded with an unnecessary suspicion. Mar- 
\el ous as are the fictions of man, the wonders of nature are even greater, 
especially when recited by one who restrains his imagination by well-authen- 
ticated scientific observations. 

The wonders of-God’s universe are as astonishing as His abundant pro¬ 
vision and constant care for His creatures. That “all' is fair in war,” seems 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


“9 


to be the practical belief of animals as well as of man, and one means by 
which man takes advantage of the whale is worth mentioning — the whale is 
betrayed through its maternal instinct . The cubs are childlike in their inno- 
fcence and fearlessness, and though valueless in themselves, are harpooned by 
► whalers because they know that the mother will not desert her cub, and can 
thus be captured. Ordinarily the mother devotes herself to the care of her 
young, rising to blow whenever the less sturdy cub comes to the surface; 
encouraging it to swim off by itself instead of depending too entirely upon 
maternal care; gathering it under her fin, as a startled hen covers her brood 
with her wings ; assisting its flight, when flight seems necessary, by support¬ 
ing it by her own fin. All of this tender solicitude is delightful to the idle 
looker-on, and suggests many lessons which the human being would do well 



HUNTING THE GREENLAND WHALE WITH HAND HARPOON. 

to apply. But “ in the midst of war the laws are silent, and ^ 

tions of sentiment must be sacrificed to man s necessi y _ whale’s 

does well, he believes, if he indulges in no unnecessary cr ^ - , , i QSS Q f 

-affection for her cub is, as has been said, made to betray adventures with 

its life as well as of her own. Many of the most 

whales have been occasioned by the infnnated creatnre J? a cub 

protect her young—giving up her life for her young. a rno -p-ed line har- 

having been harpooned, the mother seized her young , c t e ff or t s ’fruit- 

poon, boat and all several hundred fathoms. f .1 manner of an 

Ls ’to release her cub, she darted hither and thith^r ato ^ 

agonized parent who sees no course to pursue. P 













120 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


plunged into her, but she seemed indifferent to pain and solicitous only for the 
safety of her cub. In this case the fishermen suffered no injury and were 
exposed to no danger. But quite frequently the enraged mother destroys the 
boats and causes the loss of human life in her frantic attempts to rescue her 
offspring. On one occasion in particular, after the mother discovered that her 
cub could not follow her, and that its blood which dyed the water was being 
shed by the enemy in the boats, she plunged many fathoms below the sur¬ 
face, swam some distance until she had acquired great momentum, and rising 
beneath one of the boats smashed it as fihough it had been a cockle-shell. 

The crew were thrown into the water, and several of them, having become 
entangled, were borne to a watery grave. It not seldom happens, in spite of the 
military order which prevails amongst the crew of a whaling boat, and the 



A WOUNDED WHALE STRIKING ITS PURSUERS- 


long and varied experience of the men, that several boats will be destroyed 
before the frantic mother exhausts her strength and yields her life to the hunter. 
To be dragged by the whale many miles away from the ship, and then when 
thus deprived of assistance to find their boat smashed and themselves in the 
midst of the sea, surrounded it may be by drowning companions, has been an 
experience, that many a whaler has undergone more than once. Such is the 
change which maternal solicitude or the frenzy of intolerable pain can work in a 
creature which, itself inoffensive, finds no enemy but man, except sword-fishes, 
thresher sharks, and possibly narwhals! 

It has been truly said that “ what is one man’s meat is another man’s 
poison,” and while to our untrained or uncultivated palates the flesh of the 
whale would be as revolting as the bane of sick children, cod-liver oil, yet 
there are people who would reject with disdain what we consider delicacies and 







THE LIVING WORLD. 


321 


^at with avidity and relish the flesh of the whale. The inhabitants of the Arctic 
regions have discovered that their environment requires rich, oleaginous food, 
and hence use the whale as food as well as for oil and bone and ivory. The 
Esquimaux or Eskimos, of Kamtchatka, north-eastern Asia, the Arctic Archi¬ 
pelago, and the North American Arctic region take their name from being eaters 
of raw flesh—they call themselves not Esquimaux, but Innuit, a word which 
in their tongue means the manly ones. Through the accounts of various explorers 
(notably of Sir John Franklin, Elisha Kent Kane and Greeley,) we know 
that the Esquimaux were not vainglorious in their assumption of a name, for. 
they have always been distinguished by many manly qualities, such as indus- 



FIRING THE GUN HARPOON. 


try, skill, hardship and activity. The necessities of their life have taught them 
to use wood and turf very sparingly, even as building material, so that their 
partially underground houses are, built of real bones of the whale; dress, 
bedding and tapestry, furnished by the seal or the reindeer; boats supplied by 
the whale and walrus ; sleds made from skins ; weapons and ornaments made 
from bone or ivory, and exhibiting a mechanical and artistic skill worthy of 
greater permanence; and finally, food and oil, if the Esquimaux would subsist 
at all; all these are from necessity derived from the spoils of the chase and 
most largely from the cetaceans which they capture. The uniform stoutness 
and good health of the Esquimaux go to show that m that climate, at least, 













122 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



manatuj {Manatus Americanus ). 


one might fare royally upon flesh of the whale, which would never be “ as dry 
as a remainder biscuit.” 

It is stated upon sufficient authority that from the thirteenth to the sixteenth 
centuries the whale’s tongue was considered a delicacy by the Spaniards and 
Portuguese, and that the Lenten fare of the French peasant was chiefly whale 
meat. In passing, we should not fail to remark that the contribution of the 
whale to the very subsistence of the Esquimaux should be remembered when 

thinking of the 
many illustrations 
of the adaptation of 
animals not simply 
to their surround¬ 
ings, but to render 
most efficient the 
lives of men who, 
however different 
from ourselves, are 
quite as much the 
objects of Divine 
care, and quite 

as conscious of their dependence. The white whale, despite the beauty of his 
color, the large number frequently found in a school, and its fearlessness in 
approaching vessels, is generally safe from attack by the whalemen. This is 
due, of course, to the fact that its yield of oil is not sufficient to make it a 
prize. Still it is quite as well perhaps, that the hard life of the sailor should 
be tempered at times 
by a perception of the 
beauty and playfulness 
of the marine monster, 
for though “ a common 
sailor” may lack the 
most delicate sensibili¬ 
ties or the most sus¬ 
ceptible imagination, he 
must nevertheless, in a 
vague way, it may be, 
appreciate objects of 
interest which do not 
directly conduce to his profit. Doubtless much of the beauty of ancient myth¬ 
ology is due to the etherealized telling over of the experiences of the ancient 
mariners, and it is easy to understand the functions and attributes with which 
a strange and beautiful water animal would be endorsed by the superstition 
of awe-struck men. There was a time when what is now mythology was 
religious. belief, and it is not difficult to understand how the impressionable and 
imaginative Greek who believed honestly in Neptune’s sovereignty over the 
sea,. should assign to the sea king as servants the larger and more striking 
marine animals, and surround his chariot with mermaids and mermen and other 
strange conversions into human form and endowment with human attributes. 

The Sirenia were for a long time confounded with the whale, but in the 



LAMANTIN (Manatus Australis ). 













THE LIVING WORLD. 


123 


most recent systems of classification they have been assigned to an order by them¬ 
selves. The sirenia are slow-moving, herbivorous, harmless creatures, whose 
ancestors belong to the fossiliferous periods. They have been commemorated 
in poetry and fable, being the creatures celebrated under the name of mermaids, 
about which so many interesting fables have clustered. Behring, for whom 
Behring’s Strait was named, had with him on his voyages a naturalist whose 
study of the sirenia was so careful as to result in his names being given to 
the Rhytina stelleri , Steller's Rhytina , or Northern Sea-Cow. The species then 
abounded in the 
vicinity of Kamt- 
chatka, but is now 
substantially ex¬ 
tinct. The creature 
had a length of up¬ 
wards of twenty-five 
feet; had a dark, 
hairless, thick skin; 
its tail resembled a 
pair of whalebone 
flukes, and its small 
head was ornament¬ 
ed by a bristled 
snout. It fed upon 
sea-weed and pre¬ 
ferred to move about 
in herds (whence, 
possibly, its com¬ 
mon name)! It 
seems to be strictly 
monogamous, and 
the father, mother 
and two cubs of dif¬ 
ferent ages gener¬ 
ally kept together 
as a family. It was 
easily tamed, and 
when the sailors and 
natives did not kill 
it for its flesh they 
frequently converted 
it into an affection- 

ate pet. No living specimen of this species has been found during the last 
hundred years, as the destruction of the animals resembled the wicked carnage 
which, but for the interposition of legislation, would have converted the American 
buffalo into an extinct species. Few governmental institutions are so unobtru¬ 
sively useful as the Smithsonian, and, upon visiting Washington, one should 
visit its museum, which to make this remark relevant, contains various remains 

of the Rhytina stelleri. c . r . 

The Sirenia, called Manatees, are found on the west coast ot Africa, on 
















124 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


the eastern coast of South America, and in the Floridian waters—each locality 
having its own species. 

The Trichechus americanus, or American Manatee, has a gray hide 
with hair scattered over it and of a texture similar to that of the elephant. 
It ranges in length from ten to twenty feet, and does not confine itself to the 
sea, but ascends rivers with the greatest disregard of whether the water, instead 



SKULL OF THE SEA HOUND. SKULL OF THE WALRUS- 



SKULL OF THE DUGONG. 



of being salt, is either merely brackish or wholly pure. The few experiments 
upon trying to make them live in the confinement of the Zoological aquarium 
have been attended by only a short-lived success. 

The Dugong (Halicore dugong) is the Malayan Sirenian, and is found as 
far south as Australia. It is bluish-black in color, and it is captured both for 

its seal-like flesh 
and for its- oil. It 
is found frequent¬ 
ing bays, harbors 
and river mouths 
in the tropics, 
where it is the ob¬ 
ject of persistent 
pursuit. 

The American 
Manatee is the 
species found on the 
eastern coast of 
South America. It 
has a grayish hide 
which resembles 
that of the ele- 
young walrus. phant. In length 

it varies from ten 

to twenty feet. It is found as far north as Florida, and is indifferent as to 
whether the water be salt or fresh. The animal is easily tamed, and there¬ 
fore a favorite in such zoological gardens as contain specimens. 

The Walrus (Trichechus rosmarus) belongs to the seal family, but is distin- 














THE LIVING WORLD. 


!25 


guished by its two immense canine teetb. It is gregarious and always keeps 
its sentinels posted. It is harpooned like the whale, and though yielding but 
little oil, is yet valuable for the ivory of its tusks. 

The walrus is at times brave to desperation, especially when attempting to 
protect its young. It first endeavors to put its cubs in a place of safety, but 
failing in this, will clasp it to its breast and then dash themselves again 
and again at their persecutors. On one occasion Captain Cook, the noted navi¬ 
gator, had met with unusual success in hunting the walrus. As the boats 
approached the herd, the old ones seized their cubs with their fins and endea¬ 
vored to escape into the sea. Several which had escaped returned for their 



THE WALRUS. 

young and finding these dead, returned to the surface and bore off the lifeless 
bodies.’ One walrus , whose dead cub had been hauled into one of the boats, 
repeatedly attacked the boat, striking her teeth clear through the bottom of it 
Doubtless had there been a poet among the walrus he would have anticipated 
the stirring lines of Elizabeth Barrett Browning; certain it is that the grief 
of the afflicted walrus was quite as deep and fully as sincere as that of any 
human parent. It may be as well to interject the remark that the cubs manifest 
like devotion for their parents, and often after having been assured of safety will 
return and join in their defence. 



126 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


The Seal, though a mammal, is almost wholly aquatic, its terrene exist¬ 
ence being limited to the brief periods during which it lies luxuriously on the 
shore, to which it has shambled. Passing most of its life in the water, its 
structure exhibits that wonderful adjustment to function and condition which 
converts a genuine study of natural history into the most exciting and most 
effective means of acquainting one with the marvellous wisdom of the Creator, 
and of the harmony which always exists among the laws by which He governs 
the universe. The elongation of the body; the legs, whicn are a compromise 
between legs and fins, with a preponderance in iavor of the fin; and a skin 
impervio-is to moisture, are among the more evident of the seal's provision for 
the life which it is to lead. The seal is easily trained, and can be taught to 



THE MORSE. 


lead its services as a fisherman to its owner. The strangeness, gentleness, 
tractability and affectionateness of the seal make it a popular favorite, and in 
aquariums few creatures attract a more unceasing interest from the visitor. It 
will be remembered that even Achilles had a vulnerable spot, and the seal's 
weakness lies in its nose, upon which it is struck when captured The seal 
is, after its sort, a vocalist, and while its moan displays even less variety than 
the Scottish bag-pipe, it is not unpleasant when a number exercise themselves 
in antiphonal Choruses. More than this, the seal is fond of music when he is 
not the performer, and many a story is told of a musician finding among the 
seals an unsought but not uninterested or unappreciative audience. 

The seal retires to the land when the tender age of its cub or cubs (for 








































THE LIVING WORLD. 


127 



it sometimes has two), unfits it for a life on the ocean wave. When the young 
are about two weeks old they are taken to the sea by their solicitous mothers, 
whose instinct makes them much more intelligent in matters of primary edu¬ 
cation than the average human parent. The young are taught to fish and to 
swim—that is, they are initiated into the life which they are to lead. Fully 
aware of the danger of exacting too much, the mother will, at reasonable intervals, 
take her cub upon her back, and doubtless affording them, in addition to 
rest, the delight which human children find in being borne aloft by some grown 
person, whose strength and power seems to it gigantic. The males fight for 
the selection and possession of as many wives as please their fancy, but once 
having settled this question of relationship, the marital obligations are strictly 
observed, and no seal undertakes to invade the domestic rights of another. 
The stronger males select the 
rocks, which they prefer for 
their inland residence, and the 
weaker must content them¬ 
selves with what is left; but 
after any seal has thus taken 
possession of its dwelling it 
has no occasion to fear in¬ 
trusion or expropriation on the 
part of the stronger or more 
cunning. 

The American who visits 
Mount Desert, or whom neces¬ 
sity or pleasure takes to San 
Francisco, can find much 
amusement in watching the an¬ 
tics and in studying the hab¬ 
its of the seal. He will find 
the rocks covered by families 
of seals , so that he is reminded 
of the squatter shanties which 
so abound in New York city. 

From time to time some seal hoodfd seal. 

who has pitched his tent on 

the very apex of some lofty rock may be seen leaping a sheer hundred 
feet into the sea, and then awkardly clambering up the steep cliff appar¬ 
ently for the excitement of another dive. Although usually good-natured and 
friendly in their relations with each other, seals will, at times other than when 
struggling for the possession of their lady-loves, find some grievance not appar¬ 
ent to the human observer, and will then exercise that right which civilized 
men have disused for the courts and the ballots—those “vicarious shillalahs,” 
as they have wittily been called. The seal is a great annoyance to the fisher¬ 
man, for in addition to its own expertness as a fisher, it will possess itself of 
the fish which may be in the fishermen’s seines, and leave him “ to hold the bag.” 

The Crested Seal, or Hooded Seal, was doubtless the creature which the 
mythologists celebrated as the Triton, for the male, who, contrary to human 
'Customs, wears the bonnet or hood, has sufficient resemblance to a cowled monk 






128 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




to lead the ignorant to believe it some odd species of humanity, or some 
supernatural being anthropomorphic in form, like the other gods of the heathen 
world. The Triton who gave his name to the family was, though the child of 
Neptune and Amphitrite, degraded to a fish-like form for some of the many 

misdeeds which the heathen deities 
were ever committing. His punish¬ 
ment was not simply personal, but 
was inflicted upon his offspring from 
generation to generation. The idea, 
of heredity includes evidently the 
notion of the persistence of evil, and 
is a new presentation of the doc¬ 
trine of original sin, and of the 
meting out to the individual a judg¬ 
ment extending beyond his own life, 
and affecting life and conditions of 
that of his successors. “As ye sow,, 
so shall ye reap,”—not solely your¬ 
self, but those innocent ones whose 
lives are dependent upon yours. 

The crested seal , hooded seal or 
Greenland seal , is the most neces¬ 
sary of creatures to the Esquimaux ; 
it serves as food, provides them with 
clothing, is used for the construction 
home of the seae. of boats, yields its air-reservoir as 

a buoy for floating the lance designed 
to destroy creatures of the sea, supplies the heads of their spears, and when 
needed for none of these purposes, serves as a pet or amuses the children by 
its antics. The Esquimaux hunt the seal in two ways. The first method is 
to take advantage of the seals known fondness for excavating a cavity in the 
ice, and having made 
therein a berth-like 
shelf, to pass there 
its times of restful¬ 
ness. These seal- 
caves are always indi¬ 
cated to the trained 
eye of the hunter by 
an incrustation of 
snow, and when a 
slight scratching in¬ 
dicates the appear¬ 
ance of the seal, the COMMON sea hound (Phoca vitulina ). 

hunter lying in wait 

impales it with his lance. The second method is to go out in parties, and by 
lying down on the ice and moving so as to resemble the locomotion of the 
seal , to approach close enough to cut off the seals retreat to the water. As 
the seal moves slowly and with difficulty except when in the water, it will 











THE LIVING WORLD. 


now fall an easy prey to the hunters who attack it and seek to disable it by 
striking it on the nose. 

The Ringed Seal (.Phoca fcetida ) is blackish-brown above, and yellowish- 
white below, and its back has markings of oval white or gray spots, somewhat 
resembling rings. It is abundant 
in the northern seas, and is a fur- 
yielder. 

The Bearded Seal (. Erigna - 

thus barbata ) is gray and some¬ 
times has spottings, deriving its 
name from the coarse, heavy hairs 
that cover its nose. 

The Harp Seal [Phoca groen- 
landica ) is so named because cres¬ 
cent-shaped belts of black extend 
from the shoulders down each side 
to the posterior part of the back. 

In the male, the head as far back 
as the eyes is black. The young 
are gray, spotted with brown, and 
lack the harp marking; the older 
seals are white or whitish-yellow, seals alarmed 

as the ground color. 

The Ribbon Seal (Histriophoca fasciata ) is dark-brown in coloring, but wears 
a yellow-white ribbon about its neck, a yellow-white girdle well back on its body, 
and lateral belts connecting these. 

The Sea Bear (Callorhinus ursinus) is the fur-seal, so well known to 

luxuriously winter-clad persons. 
It has almost wholly disappeared 
from the northern coasts of our 
country. It is sufficiently com¬ 
mon in zoological gardens to be 
a familiar sight, and, in its en¬ 
forced state of domestication, it 
furnishes the visitor all of its 
attractions, unless it be the 
choral made by the vast schools 
of this animal. 

The Sea Dog [Phoca vitu- 
Izna) is a seal which lives in 
harbors. 

The Hair Seal, or Com¬ 
mon Seal is frequently called 
the Sea Lion. It is polygamous, 
and rivals the Turks in the in- 
eur seal. stitution of the harem. Visitors 

to California have become familiar with this semi-aquatic animal, and there 
are many resorts, such as Mount Desert, which maintain a “ summer school ” 
of seals. 


9 




I 3° 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



marbled seal- 


The Sea Elephant (Crystophora proboscidea) is the largest of the seal 
species. The male has a short proboscis, which has given the name to the 
species. Specimens thirty feet in length and eighteen feet around have been 

found. It is a denizen 
of the Southern Hemi¬ 
sphere, where it is hunted 
for the oil which it fur¬ 
nishes in abundance. 
Although a carnivorous 
animal, it will feed upon 
vegetables, and, though 
frequently living in salt 
water, is specially fond 
of fresh-water lakes and 
swamps. The young are 
born in June, and for 
two months receive the 
most devoted care from 
their mothers. After the 
young are brought to the 
sea the males fight val¬ 
iantly for a selection 
of wives, for they are 
polygamous. When young the sea elephant is very easily domesticated. 
This seal sometimes goes through the experiences of Arctic explorers car¬ 
ried off on a floe of ice. 

As it cannot swim for any 
great length of time, it is 
very much perplexed when 
it unexpectedly finds itself 
floating far away from its 
happy hunting grounds. 

It is less helpless than the 
stranded sailor, for it can 
always secure food by for¬ 
aging, but, unlike the sail¬ 
or, the nearer it approaches 
civilization the greater are 
the dangers which threaten 
it. On one occasion a wan¬ 
dering sea elephant en¬ 
gaged, possibly, in hum¬ 
ming to himself, “I’m 
afloat, I’m afloat,” was 
picked up by a vessel and 
safely carried to London, 
which great metropolis it 

had not the least desire to visit, and which it failed to enjoy as a permanent 
residence. Such is the lack of effect of civilization upon the untutored barbarian! 





trumpet seal- 








AVI L CO. L ITH. PM I LA 



ip m MYi 




J W- v " \ 11 JT J j 

< ^ . k V m i* 

y>a , 


up 



* ~~jdk'- v 

A 1 

■ 4 *3 


1 

r 

A t >f7 ‘--,_ 




w 


fierce: snakes of the jungle. 



















REPTILES. 


BIRTH OF REPTILIAN CREATURES IN THE CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD. 



in the progression of species, which has kept pace 
with earth development, we find the Devonian age, 
or age of fishes, followed by the carboniferous, or 
coal-bearing period, in which reptiles first appeared. 
At this time vegetation was very rank, bathed as it 
was by dense vapors rising from the still heated 
earth, and the growth was generally of gigantic pro¬ 
portions by reason of this very great stimulation. Save 
where upheavals had occurred, caused by the burst¬ 
ing of the world’s crust through the expansion and 
accumulation of gases generated by the fierce fires 
that raged within, the surface was everywhere either 


vast sea or morass, in which latter giant reptiles had their haunts. Of 
birds, mammals or insects there were none, because with their charac- 
fp teristics, as will be explained in appropriate divisions of this work, they 
could not have lived under conditions so unfavorable to their existence. But the 
very conditions that made other life impossible conduced to the propagation and 
stimulation of reptilian creatures, in which wise provision of nature we behold the 
special design of Providence, who in measureless wisdom adapted everything to 
the mutations of the developing masterpiece -of His handiwork the world. 

While reptiles are widely distributed, we find them most numerous in the 
tropical regions, where the conditions are more nearly like those in which they 
had their birth, though the changes through which the earth has passed pro¬ 
duced modifications noticeable not only in size, as compared with creatures 
of the carboniferous age, but their structure as well. Such changes have grad¬ 
ually taken place to accommodate all animal life to the subsidence of the seas, 
cooling of temperature and reduction of vegetation. 


CHARACTERISTICS OF REPTILES. 



without affording any practical information. 

(13O 


132 


THE HIVING WORLD. 


A general characteristic of reptiles is found in that they are cold-blooded, 
because of a sluggish circulation, and their usual mode ol locomotion is by crawl¬ 
ing. Other singularities are noticeable in their great vitality, torpidity after 
eating, lethargy during cold periods, slow digestion, and muscular energy 
less highly developed than in the mammals. Most reptiles are oviparous, laying 
eggs which, however, are never incubated; but some are viviparous, like the 
rattlesnake, bringing forth their young so well developed that tney are at once 
able to care for themselves. Many reptiles are also provided with shell or 
scales, so strong as to compose a veritable cuirass, impenetrable by common 
ride ball when fired at ordinary range. Others again have minute scales 



MONSTERS OF THE ANTEDILUVIAN SEA. 


so closely laid as to serve to facilitate the creature’s motion through grass or 
water. But of the many varieties found in all countries, there are none that 
present a pleasing appearance, though some are clothed in a robe reflecting 
iridescent colors, and others are mottled with stripes and spots of splendid hues. 
These, however, do not serve to lessen the natural dread in which they are 
held, which is felt for the harmless as well as for the venomous. But though 
we shrink from close familiarity with these repulsive animals, there is a curi¬ 
osity, which some call morbid, which draws us almost irresistibly to gaze upon 
such creatures whenever opportunity presents, a desire that extends even to 
interest in illustrations of all reptiles, however abhorrent may be their appear¬ 
ance or the loathsomeness they excite. Indeed, paradoxical as it may appear, 
the excessively homely creatures attract us quite as much as do the beautiful^ 
though we may not know why this is so. 

























THE LIVING WORLD. 


*33 


FROGS AND TOADS. 

Though some naturalists do not include frogs in their classification of 
reptiles, reserving them for a general order, called batrachia , I have preferred 
to follow the arrangement of equally reliable authorities and introduce this 
order as the one in most natural sequence to fishes on account of a similarity 
which exists between the two orders in many essentials. The two prime differ¬ 
ences that serve to distinguish the frog and the toad is in the former being 
largely an inhabitant of the water, and having a smooth, flecked skin, while the 
latter, though not extremely averse to water, spends his life upon land, clothed 
in a much less inviting raiment than his aquatic first-cousin. The water frog 
is admirably adapted to his element by being provided with webbed feet and 



ANTED!I.UVIAN LAND REPTIT.ES. 

long hind legs, which enable him to move through the water at great speed. 
His toes, however, are of considerable length, by which he can chug to limb 
or log, and which make his footing sure on shore. Like all amphibians, the 
heart of a frog has a single ventricle, permitting the blood to circulate without 
the help of lungs, thus enabling it to remain for a long while under water. 

Professor Raesel, of Nuremberg, devoted several years of his life to a study 
of the frog in all its metamorphoses, and upon this subject supplies us with 
some very curious, as well as useful information, upon whose authority most 

naturalists rely for the following facts: - r 

The common frog, in which designation both the toad and water-frog may 
be included, since the propagation of each is identical, chooses his mate early m 



























I 34 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


the season and is monogamic. The deposition of eggs begins about the middle 
of March, at which time the female expels nearly one thousand eggs by a single 
effort, which are immediately fecundated by the male, after the manner of fishes, 
who ejects a milky substance, beclouding the water surrounding the eggs, in 
which envelope they remain only a short while before impregnation is accom¬ 
plished. The eggs now drop to the bottom, and after remaining there for four 
hours, begin to sensibly increase in size, as if expanded by gas, until they rise 
to the surface. Twenty-one days after being deposited a rent occurs on one 
- side of the eggs, out of which protrudes a small tail; but not until the thirty- 
ninth day does the animal have motion, and two days later sheds its shell and 
falls to the bottom. One day later they have so increased in size and strength 
as to be able to rise to the surface again and feed off the jelly-like substance 
which had served them as a shell. A day later they assume the tadpole form, 
and three days thereafter fringes appear on either side of the neck, which do 
not develop, however, for three months. They now no longer depend upon the 

mucus, of which their original envelope was com¬ 
posed, for food, but begin a voracious consump¬ 
tion of pond-weed, off which they subsist until 
their legs are developed. It is not until the ninety- 
second day after hatching that two feet begin to 
appear at the base of the tail, and four days there¬ 
after they refuse vegetable food, teeth having now 
developed, for a more substantial diet. After the 
legs are formed the tail remains for several days, 
disappearing gradually by absorption, and giving 
the creature the appearance of a hybrid lizard. 
Having at length developed, the young frog quits 
its former element and goes on shore in quest of 
insects, but rarely strays away from damp dis¬ 
tricts. Tf the haunt become dry by reason of a 
drouth, the young frogs seek shelter under rocks, 
logs or roots, and there continue until a shower, 
when they emerge from their retreat in such num¬ 
bers as to have given rise to the popular, though erroneous, belief, that they 
have dropped down with the rain. 

The frog lives, for the most part, out of water; but when the cold nights 
begin to set in, it returns to its native element, always choosing stagnant waters 
where it can lie without danger, concealed at the bottom. In this manner it 
continues torpid, or with but very little motion, all the winter; like the rest of 
the dormant race, it requires no food, and the circulation is slowly carried on 
without any assistance from the air. 

Frogs live upon insects of all kinds; but they never eat any unless it be 
alive and have motion. They continue fixed and immovable till their prey 
appears; and just when it comes sufficiently near, they jump forward with 
great agility, dart out their tongues, and seize it with certainty. The tongue, 
in this animal, as in the toad, lizard and serpent kinds, is extremely long, and 
formed in such a manner that it swallows the point down its throat, so that a 
length of tongue is thus drawn, like a sword from its scabbard, to assail its 
prey. This tongue is furnished with a glutinous substance, and whatever 





THE LIVING WORLD. 


x 35 

insect it touches infallibly adheres, and is thus held fast till it is drawn into 
the mouth. 

BELLOW OF THE FROG, A TRUE PROGNOSTIC. 

The croaking of frogs is a familiar sound in all tropical and temperate 
climates, the penetrating trill of the green-back, the guttural carping of the tree 
toad, and the bellowing notes of the bull frog being alike familiar to our ears, 
on which account the frogs of Holland are called Dutch nightingales. So loudly 
do these creatures bellow that they may be heard a distance of three miles. 
The notes are only sounded by the male, and are loudest during the coupling 
season, though before wet weather they are most dissonant and in full exertion. 
The frog is a true weather prophet, invariably croaking as a prognostic of 
approaching rain. 

HOW FROGS EAT THE EYES OUT OF FISHES. 

As frogs adhere closely to the backs of their own species, so it has been 
found, by repeated experience, 
they will also adhere to the 
backs of fishes. Few that 
have ponds but know that 
these animals will fasten to the 
backs of carp, and stick their 
fingers in the corner of each 
eye. In this manner they are 
often caught together, the 
carp blinded and wasted away. 

Whether this proceeds from 
the desires of the frog, disap¬ 
pointed of its proper mate, or 
whether it be a natural enmity 
between frogs and fishes, I 
shall not take upon me to say. 

A story told us by Walton 
might be apt to incline us to 
the latter opinion. 

“As Dubravius, a bishop 
of Bohemia, was walking with 
a friend by a large pond in that 
country, they saw a frog, while a pike lay very sleepily and quiet by the shore 
side, leap upon his head, and the frog having expressed malice or anger by his 
swollen cheeks and staring eyes, did stretch out his legs, and embraced the 
pike’s head, and presently reached them to his eyes, tearing with them and his 
teeth those tender parts ; the pike irritated with anguish, moves up and down 
the water, and rubs himself against weeds, and whatever he thought might 
quit him of his enemy, but all in vain, for the frog did continue to ride tri¬ 
umphantly, and to bite and torment the pike till his strength failed, and then 
the frog sunk with the pike to the bottom of the water: then presently the frog 
appeared again at the top and croaked, and seemed to rejoice like a conqueror; 
after which he presently retired to his secret hole. The bishop that had beheld 



I. BUFO AQUA. 2. PEP A. 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


136 




GREEN BULL FROG. 


the battle, called his fisherman to fetch his nets, and by all means to get the 
pike, that they might declare what had happened. The pike was drawn forth, 
and both his eyes eaten out; at which when they began to wonder, the fisher¬ 
man wished them to 
forbear, and assured 
them he was certain 
that pikes were often 
so served.” 

The ordinary life 
of the frog and toad 
is supposed to be fif¬ 
teen years, though 
Mr. Arscott declares 
he kept a toad for 
thirty-six years that 
finally lost its life by 
injury from a tame 
raven. 

Many stories are 
told of the toad’s 
venom and infection, but such are only idle fictions, for no creature is more 
harmless, or, I may add, of greater service to the gardener, since its chief 
subsistence is off the most noxious insects. So, also, are the stories without 
a grain of truth that represent living frogs as having been taken from the 
centre of stones and of large trees. His vitality is very great, but he per¬ 
ishes as quickly under the air-pump as any other reptile, though he may 
survive a fast of 
several months, as 
can many snakes. 

Equally discred¬ 
itable are the asser¬ 
tions made by many 
respectable and 
otherwise trustwor¬ 
thy persons to the 
effect that cancers 
are curable by the 
application of toads, 
which are repre¬ 
sented as sucking 
out the eating virus 
and injecting a 
healing elixir. 

Having thus de¬ 
scribed some of the 


TREE FROG (Hyla arborea ). 


distinguishing characteristics of frogs and toads, between which there is a 
pronounced similarity, we may proceed to a description of the several species. 

Green Bull Frog (J?ana esculenta). At the head of the order indispu¬ 
tably stands the American bull frog , whose deeply resonant notes wake the 





THE LIVING WORLD. i 37 

echoes from ponds during the summer nights, and with whose succulent legs 
all good eaters are happily familiar. His haunt is the marsh or shallow pond, 
where he sits on the margin and takes such prey as comes within his reach.’ 
When insect food is difficult to procure he swims along the bottom and captures 
crawfish, water-beetles and occasionally minnows. The frog , however, is himself 
persistently hunted for the market, the favorite way of capturing him being with 
rifle bullet, net, or by fishing for him with a piece of red* flannel, at which he greedily 
jumps and fastens his teeth, so that he may be taken before loosing his fangs. 

The Tree Frog, also called Spring Frog (Hyla arborea ), is a small but 
beautiful creature, considering that he is a reptile. Chameleon-like, he has the 
power to change his color when danger 
threatens, and usually adopts the hue of 
whatever perch he rests on. He has a pea- 
green back, spotted with black, and a yellow 
belly. His home is in the United States, 

^ast of the Rocky Mountains. 

The Flying Frog (. Rhachophorus rein- 
hardit ), a native of Borneo, is almost identical 
in appearance with the tree frog of our 
country, especially when in repose. Its dif¬ 
ference is noticeable when in motion, since its 
toes are very long, with a web between, by 
which it is enabled to fly, with a slight de¬ 
scent, by spreading its feet and swimming 
through the air. 

The Pond Frog is very closely allied to the bull frog, its principal difference 

being found in a glandular sac that lies on 
both sides of the neck, and which are greatly 
distended when the animal croaks. Neither 
is it so large as our bull frog, but it is a 
much better jumper, and is extremely diffi¬ 
cult to capture on account of its slyness. 

The Horned Frog ( Ceratophrys cornutus) 
is an inhabitant of South America, a country 
teeming with grotesque forms of animal life, 
but none more weirdly fantastic than this 
creature. There are several species, differing 
chiefly in size. The body is chubby, covered 
with a wrinkled skin that, from the tubercles 
thereon, seems to be eruptive. The back has 
a double ridge, calloused on the edges, meeting 
at the anus, and terminating on the head in 
two horns that rise up sharply above the eyes, 
giving the creature an impish appearance. It 
is very voracious, and does not hesitate to 
seize and gorge one of its own species, which 
its enormous mouth enables it to do. 

The Banded Toad ( Alytes obstetricans) , also called the Nurse Frog, com¬ 
mon to several parts of Europe, cannot rank with the horned frog for devilish 


FLYING FROG 



pond frog {Bombinator igneus). 






138 THE LIVING WORLD. 

features, but is infinitely more curious and interesting, rendered so by the very 
singular habit which the male frog has of carrying about with him the eggs 
laid by his mate. So soon as the female voids her spawn, her attentive com¬ 
panion takes immediate possession and 
fastens them, by means of a glutinous 
substance exuded from his mouth, to his 
legs and quarters, where they remain 
until the young are plainly to be seen 
through the transparent envelope. At 
this stage, which is a month after the 
spawning, the patient parent proceeds to 
the pond and there divests himself of the 
burden, to which he never after gives any 
heed. In a short while, however, the 
young burst their envelope and betake 
themselves to active life in the water, 
until they develop into the mature frog , 
when they repair to the land. 

The Surinam Toad (Pipa Americana ), 
however, is even more singular than the 
banded toad, in that it rears its young in 
a yet more curious manner. When the 
female lays her eggs the male is always 
near at hand, whose office it is to per¬ 
form the very strange operation of placing them upon the female’s back, to 
which they adhere by reason of a secretion which exudes from her skin at 
this time. This process is an exceedingly interesting one. The male takes 
the eggs in his fore feet, which he 
uses with all the dexterit}^ of true 
hands, fixes each egg carefully in 
place, smooths the whole over and 
then apparently blesses his mate and 
wishes her a God-speed in her ma¬ 
ternity. In a few days the eggs be¬ 
come embedded within the skin, each 
having a separate cell, in which it is 
incubated and retained until the young 
have all their limbs and can burst 
their envelope and move freely on 
the ground. 

This very strange creature is found 
in Surinam, from whence it takes its 
name, and also in several other parts 
of South America. The general ap¬ 
pearance of the toad , even when not 
enlarged and disfigured by the young 
in its back, is very repulsive. The head is shapeless, in that it resembles 
nothing else in nature, the nose terminating in a flexible snout, and the body 
being covered with horny projections, on which account it is sometimes called 
the wart toad. 



SURINAM TOAD. 



HORNED FROG. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




The Pouch Frog ( Monotmma marsupiatum ) is a small species found in 
Mexico and South America. It is generally of a green color, flecked with 
black. Its chief peculiarity con¬ 
sists in the female being provided 
with a pouch in which she car¬ 
ries her eggs, very much after the 
manner of marsupials carrying 
their young, except that the pouch 
is located on the frog’s back. 

When fully dilated with eggs the 
sack covers the entire back and 
gives to the creature a balloon¬ 
like appearance, quite comical to 
behold. 

The Rope, or Painted Frog 

(■Rana temporaria ), is a pretty banded toad. 

creature found throughout the Le¬ 
vant and along the Nile. It derives its name from the beautiful striping of its 

body and bands of rich brown on its legs. It is pe¬ 
culiar in being at home in either fresh or salt water. 
The coloring is generally olive green, spotted with 
white, and longitudinal streaks of gray. Sometimes 
the skin is smooth and velvety, and again covered by 
warty excrescences. 

The Common Garden Toad of Europe (. Bufo 
vulgaris ), is a repulsive creature, much less endur¬ 
able than the ground toad of America. Its color is 
ashy, with darker splotches extending backward for 
an inch behind the eye, while the skin is rough and 
pimpled. In size it equals the American toad. 

The Horned Sand Toad (. Phrynosoma orbicu- 



pouch frog. lare ) is a native of the extreme southwest and 

northern Mexico, where it is popularly called the 
Mexican frog. In size it is scarcely so large as our common toad, but though 
small its appearance is quite as horrible as anything 
found in nature. It very much resembles the moloch 
of Australia and the wart toad of Fernando Po. The 
body is covered with tubercles, out of which rise 
horny spines, a ridge of these running down the 
back, while around the neck and at the apex of the 
head are six specially prominent spines. More properly 
this creature belongs to the lizard species, as it has 
a short, thick tail, but in other respects it retains 
all the batrachian characteristics. As indicated by 
the name, its home is in dry, sandy districts, where 
it burrows during the dry season. 

The Solitary Frog is found in various parts of 
the great west, but generally preferring a sandy re¬ 
gion. It is also covered with tubercles, though these do not terminate with 



140 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


spines. On the nozzle, however, is a spine which it uses to scoop out the earth, 
something after the manner of hogs in rooting. It also has the power of bur¬ 
rowing in the sand tail foremost, in doing which it works its way downward, 
very like a crab, and makes a hole some six inches in depth. Its color is a 
pale olive, spotted with brown, while down the back run stripes of pale yel¬ 
low. Its eyes are large, across which run two black lines at right angles. In 
size it rarely exceeds two inches long, by one inch in height. Its movements 
are slow and apparently laborious. 

THE LIZARD SPECIES. 

Under this head, the species technically known as Lacertilia , from the 
Latin lacertce , meaning moving quickly , a Latin term also for lizard, are 

included. These creatures are the 
link connecting batrachians with 
ophidians or snakes, since in many 
respects they resemble both. They 
are usually of an elongated form, 
and while all have four legs, in 
some species these are only rudi¬ 
mentary or even externally absent. 
But even in those which have legs 
well developed the muscular power 
is so small that they rarely lift the 
animal’s body from the ground, but 
are used rather to push the creature 
forward. In some, however, the feet 
are fashioned for grasping, as the 
chameleon’s, while in yet others the 
toes terminate in sucker discs, which 
enable the animal to adhere to 
smooth walls. A majority lead an 
arboreal life, while two species, the flying gecko and flying drake , have the 
power of half-flying, half-leaping, from tree to tree. Nearly all are oviparous, 
laying their eggs in rude nests chosen in 
dry places and about dead timber; the 
eggs are never numerous, and are usually 
connected in a chain. Some few species, 
however, are oviparous, producing their 
young so well developed that they need 
little parental care. • There is but one 
species recognized by naturalists as being 
venomous, viz., the heloderma , commonly 
called the Gila monster , an inhabitant of 
Arizona, New Mexico and northern Mexico, 
and it is greatly to be doubted whether 
even this creature is poisonous, as will here¬ 
after be explained. The water species of lizards, or newts, belong more directly 
to the batrachian class, since they produce their young after the manner of frogs, 
though the eggs are never connected, being laid singly and hatched in succession. 




garden toad (Bufo vulgaris). 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


141 



The Flying Gecko (PtycJiozoon homalocephalum) . This singular reptile, 
found nearly everywhere in the tropics, varies in size from six to twelve inches in 
length. Though repulsive in shape, their marking is exceedingly attractive, 
banded as they are with zig-zag streaks of deep black from tip of nose to tail. 
The toes are broadly spread and webbed like the feet of the common blue 
mud-hen, though for what purpose is not known, as the animal does not enter 
the water. The most singular feature observable in the gecko is the dermal 
expansion that extends on both sides, from the mouth to the tail, terminating 
in a foliated, or leaf-shaped tip. This expansion, when the 
animal is quiet, appears as if the skin was too large for the 
body and the surplus lay loosely along its sides. Towards 
the tail, however, the skin is not continuous, but appears 
like a succession of plates. So far from this seeming sur¬ 
plus of skin being a burden to the animal it serves the most 

useful purpose of enab¬ 
ling the creature to fly 
through the air for con- 
siderable distances, 
though always at a de¬ 
scending degree. At th.e 
moment the gecko leaps, 
these skin expansions 
are spread so that it 
sails m a manner iden¬ 
tical with the flying 
squirrel. 

The Flying Drake 
or Dragon {Draco 
volens ) bears a close 
analogy to the gecko, 
though it is a much less pleasing creature. 
It possesses, though in a lesser degree, the 
power described in the gecko, being able, by 
means of the expansion of its surplus skin, 
to sail from limb to limb. The flying drake 
is also peculiar to the tropics, where it at¬ 
tains a considerable size, and in Africa is 
frequently met with more than two feet in 
length. t 

The Chameleon {Chamceleo vulgaris) is also a tropical reptile, but most 
common to Africa, where its range is from the Mediterranean to a line some 
distance below the equator. This creature is entirely arboreal, quitting the trees 
only to deposit its eggs under a small hillock of leaves gathered for he 
puimose. It P possesses many points of singularity which make it possibly the 
mo?t curious animal in nature, as well as one of the most hideous The 
head is large and angular, covered with shields and highly ridged, while the 
body is covered with a shagreen skin very like a sharks. The tongue is 
extensile and club-shaped, which the animal may dart out half the leng h of 
its body, and with such lightning-like rapidity that the eye cannot detect the 


SPECIES OF CREEPING, CLIMBING AND WALL¬ 
RUNNING LIZARDS. 





142 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


motion. Its food is flies and other insects which it takes by striking them with 
the tongue, to which the prey adheres on account of the glutinous excretion 
with which it is provided. Singular as these several features are, the eyes 
of this animal are yet more curious; they are of prodigious size compared 

with the body, yet 
over the halls is a 
growth of true skin 
very similar to that 
which covers the 
body, in the centre 
of which is a small 
hole opening upon 
the pupil. The two 
eye-balls are entirely 
independent in their 
action, by which the 
animal is enabled to 
look at two objects 
in opposite directions 
at the same time. 
Besides these singu¬ 
larities the chame¬ 
leon is provided with 
hand-like claws and 
prehensile tail, with 
which it can cling 
most tenaciously to 
the limb of a tree, 
defying all efforts to shake it off. Much has been said of the chameleon's 
power to change its color at will, but while this faculty may be exercised to 
some extent, the power is not 
nearly so pronounced as it is in 
many other of both the frog and 
lizard species. This strange ability 
is due to the fact, as Kingsley 
states, that all such creatures are 
provided with two or more layers 
of pigment cells underlying the 
transparent epidermis, a lighter 
and a darker, changeable at the 
will of the animal, or stimulated 
by surrounding objects. 

The Iguana ( Iguana tubercu- 
lata ) comprises several species of 
a lizard peculiar to the West In¬ 
dies and South America. Its appearance is decidedly uncouth, especially the 
tuberculated kind, which is distinguishable by a pyramidal head, high dorsal 
ridge armed with bony spines, and a dewlap, or throat, with long pendant folds, 
and a mouth that presents a hideous grin. The tail being very long, when 



FT/VING GECKO. 























THE LIVING WORLD. 


J 43 





the animal is asleep on the bough of a tree, it hangs down in remarkable sim¬ 
ilitude of a snake. The natives, who hunt the animal extensively for food, 
profit by this habit, for by this exhibition of 
the creature’s tail they are most easily discov¬ 
ered. The animal is very susceptible to music, 
a disposition which the natives take advantage 
of, for when approached, if the reptile is on 
the point of retreat, the natives begin to 
whistle briskly, - at the sound of which the 
creature stops and remains listening until a 
hair noose can be slipped over its. head. With 
a jerk he is then brought to the ground, 

Avhereupon his anger is manifested by blow¬ 
ing himself up like the frog that tried to rival 
the ox. 

The Common American Iguana is from 
four to five feet long. It is very common in all chameleons. 

the warm parts of America, where it remains 

in the woods, at the environs of rivers and sources of spring water. It passes 

most part of its time on trees, sometimes 
going to the water, and living on fruits, 
grain and leaves. Without being either 
venomous or dangerous, its bite is exceed¬ 
ingly painful; and when it is angry, the 
goitre, which it has under its neck, be¬ 
comes distended and expanded. This rep¬ 
tile has great tenacity and endurance of 
life, and will resist the blows of a stick 
or cudgel very well. Accordingly, it is 
usually hunted with the bow or the gun. 
iguana The ^ ema ^ es are smaller than the 

males, but their colors are much more 
brilliant. They lay eggs in the sand, about as large as those of pigeons, but 
a little longer, and of equal thickness at both ends. The shell of these eggs 
is white, even and soft. They are en¬ 
tirely filled by the yolk, and can hardly 
be said to have any albumen. They 
never harden by fire, but only become 
a little pasty. But their flavor is very 
agreeable, and they are constantly eaten 
in Surinam and Guiana. A single fe¬ 
male will lay about six dozen. 

The flesh of the iguana is consid¬ 
ered as delicious, and is in great esti¬ 
mation throughout all the warm parts 

of America. It is white and delicate. ELYING DRAGON, OR DRAKE- 

Many persons, however, consider it as 

unwholesome, especially for those who are infected with syphilis, some symp¬ 
toms of which, such as pains in the bones, etc., it is supposed to aggravate 



The Slate-colored Iguana is but three feet in length. It inhabits the same 
places as the former species, and may be merely a variety of it, in age or sex. 
Seba derives it from the island of Formosa. 

The Horned Iguana of St. Domingo is about four feet long. It is fre¬ 
quently found in the hills of St. Domingo, between Artibonite and Gonaives. 
It lives on fruits, insects and small birds, which it seizes with marvellous agility, 
and during the day it couches on trees and rocks to watch for its prey. During 


144 THE LIVING WORLD. 

or cause the return of. At Paramaraibo, it is sold extremely dear, and highly 
thought of by epicures. Pison, and many others of the old travellers in Amer¬ 
ica, have spoken in high terms of the virtues of the bezoar of the iguana, a. 
kind of stone, found, say they, in the stomach or cranium of this reptile. But,, 
at the present day, this substance is fallen into the most absolute, disrepute 
among all medical practitioners. 


NILE MONITOR. 









THE LIVING WORLD. 


i 45 




the night, and the entire season of the great heats, it retires into the hollows 
of rocks, or into the holes of old trees, and it passes about five or six months 
of the year there in a state of lethargy. This reptile is considered by the 
negroes as a delicious meat, and is accordingly sought after by them with great 
avidity. According to the report of the colonists, its flesh resembles in flavor 
that of the roebuck, 
and the maroon dogs 
make great slaughter 
among these reptiles. 

The colors of this igu¬ 
ana are not precisely 
known. 

The Monitor ( Mon¬ 
itor nilolicus ), so called 

from the fanciful idea 4 „ 

that it gives timely hedge lizard. 

warning of the prox¬ 
imity of any venomous serpent, is a habitant of the Nile, and also the marsh 
regions of India. It grows to a length of about six feet, and has both the 
power and disposition to do mankind inestimable service in destroying the eggs 
and young of the crocodile. Its tail is equal to the length of the body, and, 
being flat, propels the animal swiftly through the water. The head is sharp- 
pointed, the neck is thick and strong, and its feet are armed with powerful 

talons. The mouth is pro¬ 
vided with small but sharp 
teeth, and, singular enough, 
its tongue is round and forked 
like that of a snake. On 
account of its usefulness the 
Nile dwellers have great re¬ 
gard for its life, but many 
of the lowest caste of Hindoos 
hunt it persistently for food. 

The Hedge Lizard ( La- 
certa sterpium ) is a harmless 
little creature that may be 
found in all parts of America, 
making his abode under the 
bark of decaying logs, and 
basking in the sun on rail 
fences. His coat is gray and 
rough, and his tail so friable 
that the slightest stroke will 

I. VARAN OE THE NILE- 2- VARAN OE THE DESERT. brea k ^ beiDg bereft 

of his tail by accident gives him little concern, for the damage is speedily 
repaired by the growth of a new one. I have often found their nests under 
the bark of the lowermost rail of a worm fence, and tried to hatch them out, 
but without success. The eggs are usually six in number, and connected 
together like beads. I do not think the creature gives any attention to the eggs 



146 


THE LIVING WORLD. 





after they are laid, but yet a disturbance of them seems to destroy all vitality, 
judging by my invariable failure to artificially hatch them. 

The Metallic-backed House Lizard is another familiar reptile through¬ 
out the United States, making its home 
under door-sills, in rotted logs and under 
the bark of yard trees. Its skin is bright, 
with variable colors, and shines with splen¬ 
dor when reflecting the sun’s rays. It 
is generally dreaded, on account of its 
somewhat snaky appearance, yet nothing 
can be more harmless, or be more de¬ 
serving of our protection. 

The Skink (Scincus officinalis ), an an- 
skink. imal of Africa, possesses the singular power 

of burying itself in the sand with such 
rapidity as apparently to disappear in a previously-formed burrow. How this 
is accomplished does not clearly appear, though the fact cannot be gainsaid. 
The animal is thick of body, striped with 
black and white, and has four legs seemingly 
poorly developed, for which reason it travels 
slowly, and therefore seldom strays far from 
its abode. Formerly this reptile commanded 
the attention of the civilized world, by reason 
of the claim made that its body, reduced to 
a powder, possessed the most astonishing 
remedial virtue, and which was prescribed for pale-snake lizard. 

nearly all imaginary ills. 

The Pale-snake Lizard (Pseudopus pallasii) is a singular creature, combin¬ 
ing the characteristics of the lizard and the serpent, as its name implies. It 
is a native of Europe and Asia, and finds its abode in the darkest recesses of the 
woods, where it spends the time in quest of the eggs and young of birds. It 

grows to the length of two feet and 
has all the appearance of a snake, 
except that it has the head of a liz¬ 
ard and the rudiments of limbs. It 
is an extremely timid creature, and 
being capable of great speed, is dif¬ 
ficult of capture. 

The Amphisbcena (Amphisboena 
alba), or Two-headed Snake, so 
named by Pliny because of its ability 
to move with equal celerity either 
amphisbcena. forwards or backwards, is native to 

the warmer portions of Europe. For 
many years it was seriously believed the creature had a head at either end, 
and though this has long been disproved it does not yet appear quite plain 
how it manages to crawl so naturally backwards, especially as the head and 
eyes are so distinct, yet apparently not vitally important, so far as its travel¬ 
ling or search for food is concerned. It rarely grows to a greater length 





THE LIVING WORLD. 


i 47 



SEPS. OR METALLIC back. 


than foot, lives among decayed brush a portion of the time, but more gen¬ 
erally it burrows in the earth like an angle-worm. Other species are common 
to South America. 

The Seps Chalcidica, a word from the Greek, signifying corruption , inhabits 
regions bordering on the eastern Mediterranean, where in early years it was 
looked upon with great dread from the belief that the creature inoculated cat¬ 
tle, during their sleep, with a poison which caused the flesh to slough off until 
death supervened to 
-end the victim’s suf¬ 
ferings. From this 
groundless belief the 
name is derived. It 
is in fact a* perfectly 
harmless little animal, 
somewhat longer than 
the common lizards of 
America, but small in 
body and with such 
diminutive legs that it scarcely ranks above a worm, especially since these 
organs are of little use in the creature’s locomotion. It is of a gray color, with 
four dark stripes running from head to tail, and subsists on slugs, worms and 
insects. It is now most common in Dalmatia. 

The Wallowing Worm (Siphonops annulatus ) is a native of the South 
American tropics, but even in this restricted region it is by no means common, 
and its habits are comparatively little known. Its color is dark, with rings of 

white from neck to tail. The head is 
neither that of snake nor lizard, but 
bearing a close resemblance to that of 
the blind-worm, except for its mouth, 
which is prominent. It grows to the 
length of one foot, and while some¬ 
times burrowing, more commonly lies 
concealed under leaves in damp places. 

The Blind Worm, also called Slow 
Worm, on account of its sluggish move¬ 
ments, is very common in England, 
where it haunts the hedges and heathers 
in quest of slugs, its favorite food. 
Notwithstanding that it is one of the most numerous of English reptiles, its 
true character is so little understood by the farmer folks that many of them 
regard it with intense dread, pronouncing it so venomous that no antidote can 
counteract it. 

The name blind worm is also a misnomer, since it is provided with small, 
though very oright and sharp eyes, by which alone it could catch the insects 
on which it feeds. In length it rarely exceeds fifteen inches, but on account 
of the fierce-appearing habit of thrusting out its forked tongue, at the. same 
time rearing its head in a bold attitude at the first intimation of danger, it cer¬ 
tainly looks formidable. Instead' of verifying its appearance, however, the worm 
will not stand to fight, but to facilitate its escape will frequently throw off its 



WALLOWING WORM. 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


148 

tail with a snap, and leave this portion to its enemy while the body finds refuge 
in flight. This fragility of the blind worm is a most curious characteristic, 
from which fact has no doubt arisen a belief in the existence of the glass 
snake, having power to break itself into pieces and afterwards to unite the parts 
together again. In the blind worm this power certainly does reside, but is 
restricted to the separation of its tail, which constitutes something more than one- 
half of the creature’s entire length. Where the tail is thus thrown off, it con¬ 
tinues active for about half an hour, a provision of nature to enable the animal 
to deceive its enemy and effect its escape. The tail seems to be attached to 
the body rather than to constitute a continuous growth, but when shed another 
speedily supplants the one lost. 

The Grotto Proteus (,Proteus anguineus). This curiouscreature, while 

classed with the 
lizard order, is 
more truly a 
newt, its home 
being in the wa¬ 
ter, out of which 
it cannot live 
above a few 
hours. It was 
first discovered 
in a grotto near 
Adelsberg, 
Prussia, which 
extended many 
hundred feet 
underground, 
where profound 
darkness was 
continuous. At 
the bottom of 
this grotto was 
a small lake, 

the shores of which were covered with soft mud, in which the proteus was found 
crawling. Several of these animals have been taken to England, one of which 
was kept by Mr. Beale in an aquarium for five years, in all of which time it 
is not known to have taken any food. 

The proteus seldom attains a length of more than one foot. Its color is a 
very pale gray, with the faintest showing of a flesh tint. If it possesses eyes 
they are not discernible, though rudiments of orbits are observable in the skull; 
as it seeks the dark invariably, and is most uneasy in a place where any light 
is present, the probability is that it is sightless. But an equally singular char¬ 
acteristic is seen in the very curious gills with which it is provided, resembling, 
as they do, the delicate mosses that grow in stagnant water, and so transparent 
that the circulation of blood is plainly visible to the naked eye. Its mouth is 
armed with sharp teeth, and the jaws are so powerful that the creature 
has been known to bite through a fish, taking flesh, bone and fin at a 
single snap. In the aquarium the proteus has been fed on gold-fish, fresh 



worm snake (Calamari.i albiventer). 




















THE LIVING WORLD. 


149 



meat and frogs, on which it thrived extremely well, by which its natural food 
is suggested. 

The Basilisk (Basilicas mitratus) is found along and north of the equator, 
in the Western Hemisphere, as far as Mexico. Many 
singular superstitions have been prevalent concerning 
this creature, some of which are believed by the more 
ignorant even to this day. By not a few it is still 
spoken of as the king of reptiles, whose sovereignty 
is attested by the crown (so called) he wears. He was 
also allied to nameless things, having some occult 
powers conferred by reason of having eaten an egg 
laid by a cock, upon which a snake had set. Others 
as strongly maintained that the egg thus laid, out 
of the course of nature, was incubated by a toad. A 
glance of his eye was believed to be the arrow of 
death, while his breath infected the air with a poison 
so virulent as to kill not only the animal life that 
fell within its influence, but to destroy vegetation as 
well. As one naturalist in the seventeenth century 
wrote: “This poison of the basilisk so infecteth the 
air, and the air so infected killeth all living things, proteus. 

and likewise all green things, fruits and plants of 

the earth; it burneth up the grass whereupon it goeth or creepeth, and the 

foules of the' air 
fall down dead 
when they come 
near his den or 
lodging. Some¬ 
times he biteth a 
man or beast, and 
by that wound the 
blood turneth into 
choler, and so the 
whole body be- 
cometh yellow or 
gold, presently 
killing all that 
touch it or come 
near it.” The 
cock was the only 
creature before 
whom this terri¬ 
ble animal would 
retreat, hence trav¬ 
ellers in the re- 

LIZARD OE THE STEPPES, GROUND HENS AND HORNED VIPER. gionS where it 

was common 

rarely ventured upon a journey without carrying with them one or more roosters. 

All these idle stories have long since been exploded, until we now know 












THE LIVING WORLD. 



this much-abused animal better, and close acquaintance establishes his innocence 
under all circumstances. The basilisk , full grown, is some three feet m length,, 
his unsightly appearance being rendered more hideous by reason of a peaked 
crown he wears upon his head, not entirely unlike the regulation clowns hat. 
His back, too, is not more inviting, for from the spinal column rise long dorsal 
spines like the fins on the backs of certain fishes. The tail is also similarly armed 
while the skin is rougher than shagreen. When excited, the animal distends 
his crown to surprising dimensions, at the same time raising his dorsal spines, 

which give to him 
a grueful and hor¬ 
rible aspect, quite 
enough to stimu¬ 
late credulous peo¬ 
ple to the creation, 
of fables such as 
those just men¬ 
tioned. 

The Frilled Liz¬ 
ard ( Chlamydosau - 
rus kingii ) is about 
the same size as the 
basilisk, and its 
skin is also similar, 
but the resemblance 
is not carried fur¬ 
ther. This lizard 
is a native of Aus¬ 
tralia, where it is. 
quite common, and 
its habits well 
known, since no su¬ 
perstitious awe is 
manifested for it. 
The adult lizard 
. ,. ... would look very 

much like our com¬ 
mon species of wood lizard, but for a most curious appendage which grows 
about his neck, and from which is derived his popular name. Concerning this 
animal Captain Grey thus writes : 

“As we were pursuing our walk in the afternoon, we fell in with a specimen 
of the remarkable frilled-lizard. It lives principally in trees, though it can run 
very swiftly along the ground. When not provoked or disturbed it moves 
quietly about, with its frill lying back in plaits upon the body; but it is very 
irascible, and, directly it is frightened, it elevates the ,frill or ruff, and makes for 
a tree, where, if overtaken, it throws itself on its stern, raising its head and 
chest as high as it can upon the fore legs, then, doubling its head underneath 
the body, and displaying a very formidable set of teeth from the cavity of its 
large frill, it boldly faces an opponent, biting furiously whatever is presented to- 
it, and even venturing so far in its rage as to fairly make a charge at its enemy.’* 


THE LIVING WORLD, i 5 i 

The Water-dog (Protonopsis horrida) is a creature pretty well known all 
along water-courses of the Middle States, but in latter years it has become much 
less common than formerly. When a boy I frequently caught them when fish- 
mg m the Ohio river, and especially in creeks, for which they have a greater 
liking, but I am told that it is very seldom one is now caught in places where I 
once found water-dog fishing good. A very excellent description of this creature, 
by Messrs. Townsend and Frear, was published in the American Naturalist some 
lew years ago, as follows: 

The protonopsis, called water-dog , is an exceedingly voracious animal, feed- 
lng on fish, worms, craw-fish, etc.; some of those taken by me disgorged craw-fish 
shortly after being caught. May it not be a scavenger of the water? All my 
specimens J 

were caught 
in a creek in 
western Penn¬ 
sylvania. It is 
well known to 
those accus¬ 
tomed to fish¬ 
ing the streams 
of this region, 
from its troub¬ 
lesome habit 
of taking bait 
placed in the 
water for 
nobler game. 

When thus 
hooked, its 
vicious biting 
and squirm¬ 
ing, together water-dog. 

with the slime 

its skin secretes, render it extremely disagreeable as well as difficult to handle. 
It is often hooked while bottom fishing for catfish, and to avoid the trouble 
of handling the creature its head is cut off to facilitate the extraction of the hook. 

“ In the early summer, when the water is clear, water-dogs are often to be 
seen on the bottom in considerable numbers. Once, when fishing with some 
friends from a large rock in Loyalhanna creek, we saw quite a school of them 
moving sluggishly about among stones on the bottom. They would quickly 
take our hooks baited with meat or a piece of fish head. In one instance two 
large ones laid hold of the same bait and were landed on the rock. Last 
August I fished on the same spot for them, but without success. Acting on 
the advice of a ‘native,’ I dropped some pieces of fish near certain rocks and 
this brought out the retired water-dogs , so that I soon caught ten. Those 
taken measured from ten to eighteen inches in length, but fishermen say they 
have frequently caught them measuring two feet. 

“ They are remarkably tenacious of life. I carried my specimens six miles 
in a bag behind me on horseback, under a blazing hot sun, and kept them 












!52 


. THE LIVING WORLD. 




five weeks in a tub of water without a morsel to eat, and when I came to put 
them in alcohol they seemed almost as fresh as ever. During their confine¬ 
ment in the tub, two of the females deposited a large amount of spawn This 
spawn was something similar to frog-spawn in its general appearance, but the 
mass had not the dark colors of the latter. The ova were exuded in strings, 

and were much farther apart than irog s 
eggs. They were of a yellow color, while 
the glutinous mass which connected them 
had a grayish appearance. The spawn 
seemed to expand greatly by absorption 
of water. It lay in the tub among the 
animals for a week, but was not dis¬ 
turbed by them.” 

The Spotted Lizard {Lacerta oscel- 
lata ) is a native of the Old World, found 
most common in the warm and barren 
region of Central Asia and Arabia. It 
is beautifully spotted with white on a 
dusky brown background, and is a swift 
adult axolotl swimmer, notwithstanding the unusual 

length of tail it is compelled to drag. Its 
home is upon the ground, which it seldom leaves, except to scamper over rocks 
or logs. In length it rarely exceeds ten inches, of which the tail is consider¬ 
ably more than half. 

The Green Lizard (Lacerta viridis ), peculiar to regions about the Medi¬ 
terranean, is most beautiful in its gorgeous livery of brilliant green, as well as 
sprightly, inquisitive and courageous, 
though entirely harmless. It is a fre¬ 
quenter of old ruins, on the fallen glory 
of whose monuments it delights to bask. 

It is usually about six inches in length. 

The Waran and Debb are both 
natives of Germany, the former being 
arboreal in its habits, while the latter, 
though somewhat resembling the gecko, 
has its toes adapted to ground dwell¬ 
ing, being short and stout, enabling it 
to travel rapidly through the brush 
and crevices of rock, where its haunt 
is chiefly made. The waran grows oc- 

casionally to the length of one foot, but ,_ iRVA ov THB AXOI-<m ,. 

the debb is a thick creature, and rarely 

exceeds six inches ; its appearance is that of a poisonous reptile, but is harmless. 

The Amblystoma, also called Axolotl, is found distributed pretty widely 
throughout the American tropics, but its most popular haunt is Mexico, where, 
notwithstanding its most repulsive appearance, its flesh is used rather exten¬ 
sively for food. There are fifteen species of this creature in Central America, 
Mexico and along the Pacific coast, and a single species in Japan. In size they 
vary from two to twelve inches in length. A most singular thing concerning 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


I 53 




this creature is the fact that the larva or tadpole is much larger than the adult 
animal, for which reason it was formerly believed that the creature reversed the 
invariable process of nature by furnishing the one single example of a regres¬ 
sive transition, from the adult to the larva, as wondrous indeed as was the 
fountain of youth, or the alchemist’s elixir. The larva of this strange animal 
somewhat resembles the common frog-tadpole, except that it possesses gills 
very like those of the proteus, 
in which the blood circulation 
is as easily observable with the 
naked eye. These observations 
apply to the single species known 
as the axolotl , however, since 
in the others the tadpole is of 
ordinary size, nor have they the 
singular gills peculiar to the 
species just described. 

The Mud-Eel (Siren lacer- mud eel- 

Jina), or pseudo-lizard, is also a 

habitant of North America, its northern range being the latitude of St. Louis, 
but so very rare is the creature that it has not often fallen under scientific 
observation. It is usually found in ditches and swamps of the Southern States. 
In color it is a very dark lead, with indistinct rings of yellow about the body. 
It varies in size according to locality, since in the south it is occasionally as 
much as two feet in length, while those found in the north are scarcely half as 

long. It has two well-developed fore-feet 
and three rose-tinted gills on either side 
of the head, which the poor creature 
sometimes loses in attacks made upon it 
by fishes that regard the gills as delicate 
morsels. 

The Giant Salamander (Crypto bran- 
elmsjaponicus) is the largest of the lizard 
family, and so dreadfully repulsive that 
it is fortunate the species should be con¬ 
fined to Japan, where it lives in lakes 
and pools about the basaltic mountain 
ranges. The first specimen taken from 
that country was conveyed to Europe by 
Dr. Von Siebold, of Leyden, who secured 
a pair, but on the journey the male 
devoured his bride for want of more de¬ 
sirable food. In the summer of 1887, a 
still larger specimen was secured for the 
Philadelphia Zoological Garden by some gentleman who brought it over in 
safety from Japan together with another somewhat smaller species, known as 
the yellow salamander. I had the pleasure of examining these shortly after 
their arrival. The length of the larger specimen was said to be five feet, 
though I hardly think it was above four, but the size was certainly formid¬ 
able considering the creature’s horrible aspect. I viewed them as they lay 


GIANT SALAMANDER. 



x 54 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


in a well-lighted glass tank, so that every part of the animal was plainly dis¬ 
cernible. The larger one was a dirty black, and covered with excrescences, while 
the skin was so wrinkled and lay in folds at the side as if the reptile had 
put on a coat very much too large for him. The head was considerably 
greater in diameter than the body, both head and body being flat, or per¬ 
haps four times greater in width than in thickness. The eyes were so small 
that I was a long time examining the creature before being able to dis¬ 
cover them, as they were not only apparently immoderately small but lustreless 
as well. The animal had eaten nothing since its capture up to the time that I 
saw it, by which I judge it may survive many months of fasting without great 
inconvenience. Its food in the natural state is eels and fish, which it contrives 
to capture, notwithstanding the very sluggish nature that it exhibits. In captivity 
the salamander will no doubt develop an appetite for fresh meat, as most carni¬ 
vorous creatures do. 

Large as is the giant salamander , it is but the prototype of a progenitor 
now extinct, which in life was, perhaps, many times greater. In 1726 there was 
discovered near Emingen the skeleton of what was for a long time supposed to- 
be a man of giant proportions, who had perished in the deluge, and was profitably 
exhibited as such until critical examination by a scientist showed the bones to- 
be those of a salamander. The feet of the salamander are thick, soft, and 
without terminating in claws, contrary to most of the lizard kind'. It also differs 
from the lizard in that its young are produced alive, and ‘ from the frogs in that 
the young do not pass through a larval state, but are perfectly formed, and 
sometimes as many as fifty are brought forth at a birth. 

There are many species of the salamander found in nearly all parts of 
Europe, but though differing greatly in appearance and size, their habits are very 
similar. They are all amphibious, and appear to live with equal comfort for an 
indefinite time either in or out of the water. While in the water it is said that 
during spring these creatures shed their skins every fourth or fifth day, and in 
the winter every fortnight, a statement which I have had no opportunity of 
verifying. Their vitality is very great, perhaps exceeding that of any other 
animal. The loss of a limb seems to give them small inconvenience, and they 
even survive the loss of the head for several hours. The creature has been known 
to live under dissection until its complete dismemberment was accomplished, the 
tail being last to cease moving. Salt seems to be much more efficacious in 
destroying these animals than the knife ; for upon being sprinkled with it, the 
whole body emits a viscous - liquor, and the reptile dies in three minutes, in 
great agonies. 

The whole of the lizard kind are also tenacious of life in another respect, 
and the salamander among the number. They sustain the want of food in a 
surprising manner. One of them brought from the Indies lived nine months 
without any other food than what it received from licking a piece of earth, on 
which it was brought over; another was kept by Seba in an empty vial for six 
months, without any nourishment; and Rhedi talks of a large one, brought 
from Africa, that lived for eight months without taking any nourishment what¬ 
ever. Indeed, as many of this kind, both salamanders and lizards, are torpid, or 
nearly so, during the winter, the loss of their appetite for so long a time is the 
less surprising. 

Many curious fables have long been current about the salamander , not the 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


I 55 


least popular being its power to withstand heat and pass harmless through the 
hottest fire. But as nearly all the superstitions have some small base of truth 
to stand upon, so has that which represents the salamander as proof against 
fire. When the creature is thrown into the fire, as has been done by many 
persons out of curiosity to test what truth there is in so surprising an asser¬ 
tion, it ejects a copious flow of viscous fluid, which no doubt for the moment 
prevents the serious burning of the animal, and enables it to scramble from the 
fire little the worse for the harsh experiment. This result, however, can happen 
only under the most favorable circumstances. Pliny subjected a salamander to 
the ordeal and reports that it burned quickly into a powder, as it must invaria¬ 
bly do unless a chance is offered for its immediate escape from the embers. 

The Fiery or Dotted Salamander ( Salamandra maculata) is the most con¬ 
spicuous European species, to whose unhappy lot has fallen the fiery experiences, 
above described, from whence the name is derived. In France it is regarded as 
a most venomous reptile, the very breath of which is supposed to be as fatal 
as that of the basilisk of ancient legend. Old naturalists, who invariably had 
special regard for the 


wonderful and sup¬ 
posititious, upon the 
theory that it pleased 
men to learn of the 
marvellous dangers 
by which all man¬ 
kind are perpetually 
surrounded, spread 
such alarm of this 
unfortunate creature 
as has not yet sub¬ 
sided in certain districts. They even represented that should a person set 
the heel of his shoe upon the head of a salamander all the hair would at once 
fall from his face and cranium. The mere crawling of a salamander on the 
branches of an apple tree would blast all the fruit in an orchard. 

All this calumny is due to the slimy and repulsive appearance of the animal,, 
its resemblance to the water-dog being striking. . Its. color is .black, splotched 
with pale yellow, with tubercles like warts along its sides. This species is ter¬ 
restrial, but deposits its young in the water, where they remain only a few 
days before entering upon an independent existence upon shore. The creature 
affects the darkest places, usually making its abode in deep crevices about damp 
spots from whence it rarely ventures except on very dark, rainy days, and after 
nightfall when it goes in search of slugs and other insects, which are its com¬ 
mon food As previously stated in the general observations concerning sala¬ 
manders , this species whenever excited emits a viscous fluid, so copious as to 
possibly afford protection against the touch of fire, but it serves the crea¬ 
ture better by protecting it against enemies, m which respect it is armed like the 
common toad whose secretion is so acrid as to cause a dog that has attacked it 

to drop the quarry promptly. . . , 

The salamander hibernates, spending the severe months of winter within the 
hollow of trees, or under stones where frost is least likely to reach him, nor 
appearing again until spring is considerably advanced. 



FIERY OR DOTTED SAEAMANDER. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


156 


Besides the species above described, there are several others common to the 
United States, such as the yellow salamander of the Alleghanies, the red-backed , 
common to the Eastern States, the two-striped of the Western States, and the purple , 
or aquatic salajnander found in the Alleghany Mountain region, distinguished from 
its congeners by the courage with which it resists the attacks of any, enemy. 
But none of the several species are provided with fangs, and their bite is 
harmless. 

We come now to the most dreaded of the lizard species, viz., the so-called 

Gila Monster (. Heloderma horrida), a native of the desert regions of Mexico, 
Arizona and Lower California. It has only recently come under the notice of 
naturalists, and we may therefore be little surprised to learn that no two writers 

agree as to the 
habits or venom¬ 
ous nature of the 
reptile. To show 
how far apart are 
they in their 
theories, I will 
quote from the 
best authorities. 
J. G. Wood says: 
“As the pointed 
teeth are set as 
in the deadly 
snakes, the na¬ 
tives of Mexico 
believe the rep¬ 
tile’s bite to be 
fatal. This be¬ 
lief, however, is 
without any 
foundation, as 
the reptile really 
possesses no 
poisonous fangs. 

Like some frogs, the heloderma has a penetrating scent, and when disturbed 
it ejects an odorous saliva from its mouth. * * * It attains a length of 
nearly three feet three inches.” 

Opposed to this is the opinion of John S. Kingsley, who devotes consider¬ 
able space to a description of the animal, quoting among other things the experi¬ 
ences of Dr. Shufeldt, as follows : 

* Though the more incredulous scientist has questioned the character given 
this animal by the superstitious Indians and Mexicans, who regard it with the 
utmost fear, maintaining that it possesses venom of a most virulent nature, a 
test was recently made by Dr. Shufeldt, which is of considerable interest. He 
says, in giving an account of an animal at the National Museum : ‘ It was 

in capital health and at first I handled it with great care, holding it in my left 
hand, examining special parts with my right. At the close of this examination 
I was about to return the tellow to his temporary quarters, when my left hand 



GIt,A MONSTER. 





THE LIVING WORLD. 


i57 



slipped slightly, and the now highly indignant and irritated heloderma made a 
dart forward and seized my right thumb in his mouth, inflicting a severe lacer¬ 
ated wound, sinking the teeth in his upper maxilla to the very bone. He loosed 
his hold immediately and I replaced him in his cage with far greater haste, 
perhaps, than I removed him from it. 

“ ‘By suction with my mouth, I drew not a little blood from the wound, but 
the bleeding soon ceased entirely, to be followed in a few moments by very 
severe shooting pains up my arm and down the corresponding side. The 
severity of these pains was so unexpected that, added to the 
nervous shock already experienced, no doubt, and a rapid swell¬ 
ing of the parts that now set in, caused me to become so faint 
as to fall, and Dr. Gill’s study was reached with no little diffi¬ 
culty. The action of the skin was greatly increased, and the 
perspiration flowed profusely. A small quantity of whiskey 
was administered. This is about a fair statement of the imme¬ 
diate symptoms ; the same night the pain allowed of no rest, 
although the hand was kept in ice and laudanum, 
but the swelling was confined to this member alone, 
not passing beyond the wrist. Next morning this 
was considerably reduced, and further reduc¬ 
tion was assisted by the use of a lead-water 
wash. 

“ ‘ In a few days the wound healed 
kindly, and in all probability wdll leave 
no scar. All other symptoms sub¬ 
sided without treatment, beyond the 
wearing, for about forty-eight 
hours, so much of a kid glove 
as covered the parts involved. 
“ ‘ After the bite our spe¬ 
cimen w^as dull and slug¬ 
gish, simulating the tor¬ 
pidity of the venom- 


THE IGUANODON. 


ous serpent after it has inflicted its deadly wound, but it soon resumed its 
usual action and appearance, crawling in rather an awkward manner about its 
cage.’ ” 

“ Dr. Shufeldt’s conclusions, however, that the symptoms were no other than 
usually follow the bite of an irritated animal, seem to be given a little prema¬ 
turely. The same reptile was afterward induced to bite the edge of a saucer, 
into which, during the action, a secretion dribbled. This secretion, which was 
of a distinctly alkaline nature, in contrast to the serpent-venoms, which are acid, 
was, in a small quantity, injected into the breast of a healthy pigeon, and pro- 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


158 

duced death in seven minutes. On a second trial a small quantity was injected 
into the carotid artery of a rabbit, the animal dying in one minute and thirty- 
five seconds. Different from the action of serpent-poison, which affects the respi¬ 
ratory functions, the poison of the heloderma attacks the heart and the spinal cord. 
The power of this portion of the nervous system to respond to even powerful 
electric currents is abruptly annihilated.” 

Though the opinions of these two distinguished naturalists are in opposi¬ 
tion, yet they are both right from the standpoint of . their respective examina¬ 
tions. I have seen dozens of these creatures, and have regarded them with no 
more fear than our ordinary lizards, nor have I ever seen any fear of them 
exhibited by the natives of the region in which the heloderma is found. Still, 
I would not deny they are venomous, though the declaration needs some quali- 



ICHTHYOSAURUS, PLESIOSAURUS AND PTERODACTYL. 


ffication. I have never seen the experiment made, but reasoning from observa¬ 
tion I am of the opinion that the secretion of the common toad is poisonous, 
and if injected into the breast of a pigeon might produce serious symptoms, 
though probably not death. The same is true of the secretion of the salaman¬ 
der, which is undoubtedly a provision of nature to protect the creature from its 
enemies. But this fact is not sufficient to class them among the venomous 
reptiles. On two different occasions I sought to provoke a company of six 
helodermas to anger, with the view of discovering the manner in which they 
use, and the strength of, their jaws. For this purpose I used a stick and piece 
•of heavy wire, but notwithstanding the teasing and tormenting not one offered 
the slightest resistance. I next made a careful examination of the month of 
the largest one, in which I found no evidence of teeth, the armament consist¬ 
ing of nothing more than a sharp jawbone and bony palate. In prying the 
jaws apart I found the maxillary muscles to be surprisingly strong, showing 






























THE LIVING WORLD. 


J 59 


that its power to bite is very great, though indisposed to exercise this pro¬ 
tective provision. The only excitement the animals exhibited under the provo¬ 
cation which I gave them, was by emitting a slight hissing noise, but though 
I examined carefully, no appearance of any liquid on the sticks thrust into their 
mouths was visible. My conclusions, founded upon my experience and such 
•experiments as Dr. Shufeldt Reports, therefore are, that the animal may secrete 
a poisonous fluid from its maxillary glands, such secretion being very like that 
secreted by other batrachians, but that the power to use this venom is so seldom 
■exercised that the animal is hardly deserving of the reputation given to it by 
Dr. Shufeldt and Prof. Kingsley. 

The heloderma is of a dirty brown color, thickly covered with small yel¬ 
lowish spots. The skin is rough and hard, coated with horny tubercles. Its 
head resembles that of the toad except the crown covered with prominent tubercles, 
which add much to its repulsiveness. The legs are strong and body and tail 
thick, around the latter being indistinct rings of pale yellow. It lives off insects, 
and burrows in the sand during the rainy season. I have never seen a specimen 
that exceeded fifteen inches in length, and am doubtful of the claim that they 
occasionally grow to be much larger. 

THE CROCODILE, OR TORTOISE LIZARD. 

SAURIANS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

From a consideration of the batrachian , the frog, and the lacertilian , or lizard, 
species, we come next and most naturally to the crocodilia , or crocodile species 
of reptiles, which is the next step in the progressive order of creation. As 
already stated, in the preliminary remarks introducing the division of reptiles, 
•development in nature has been rather towards diminution in size in nearly all 
species to accommodate them to the changes which a gradual cooling of the 
earth produced. We find nature most prodigal in tropical regions, where vege¬ 
tation is not only rankest but where animal forms of life are largest and most 
numerous. Should the temperature of the ea^th grow one degree cooler each 
year at the tropics we would perceive a gradual change taking place in the size 
and forms of life there, both vegetable and animal; for, as vegetation became 
less rank food would become less plentiful, when, in the reciprocal relations 
invariable in nature, to compensate by adaptation, animals would as gradually 
diminish in size, the larger becoming extinct first or dwarfing in proportion and 
appetite, so that their demands might not be greater than nature could supply. 
At a period when the earth was nearly covered with warm waters the condi¬ 
tions were favorable to creatures of most extraordinary proportions, as compared 
with animals of to-day, and to this enormity of size was added the most terrible 
and ferocious aspects. Herein we perceive another rule of nature, established in the 
beginning and prominent still even to the most casual observer, viz., that fero¬ 
city in animal kind is usually proportionate to the size of the creature. That 
there are exceptions to this rule we must freely admit, yet generally it is as 
invariable as rules most commonly are, so true, indeed, that the exceptions serve 
to emphasize its verity. 

The age of fishes being followed by that of reptiles, we find the creatures 
thus adapted to life either in or out of the waters, of gigantic proportions, and 
being diverse as well as immense, their armaments were commensurate with their 


i6o 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


power. Of these tremendous, savage and mighty amphibians the saurians were 
most prominent, of which original species none now exist, but their bones have 
been uncovered, and such remains revealed as afford to the naturalist a means 
for determining their size, appearance and habits. 

Of the Ichthyosauri {fish lizard ) many skeletons have been found in the 
tertiary deposits of Europe, measuring as much as forty feet in length. They 
possessed characteristics peculiar alike to whales and to lizards, the marks of rep¬ 
tile being distinguishable only in the skull, eyes and backbone. It had the 
teeth of a crocodile, the head and breast of a lizard, the vertebrae of a fish 
and the. flippers of a whale. Terrible as this creature must have been, its con¬ 
gener, the plesiosaurus (nearly perfect lizard), was yet more remarkable, for to an 



PLESIOSAURUS op The prehistoric world. 

equally mammoth body it joined the long neck of a serpent, terminating in the 
head of a lizard, armed with powerful teeth. The remains of this creature are 
so abundant in England as to prove that during the secondary period it must 
have existed there in great numbers. Concerning the habits of these might}' 
animals Mangin says : 

“ It is supposed that these monstrous amphibians discharged at the Jurassic 
(middle secondary) epoch the function which nowadays devolves upon the ceta¬ 
ceans, viz., that of checking the excessive multiplication in the ocean of the mol- 
lusks and fish. The ichthyosauri were specially designed for this destruction ; 
their eyes were of extraordinary magnitude, while their powerful vision enabled 













THE LIVING WORLD. 


161 



them to both discover their prey at great distances, and to remove it during the 
night to the obscurest depths of the sea. The skulls of the ichthyosauri have 
been discovered whose orbital cavities measured from ten to twelve inches in 
diameter. In the largest species the jaws, armed with sharp teeth, yawned 
for a width of nearly seven feet. The voracity of these animals exposed them 
to the frequent loss of their teeth; but these, as is the case with the crocodile, 
were quickly replaced. 

“ As for the plesiosaurus , the small dimensions of its head, and its thin, 
elongated neck, would seem to indicate that its appetite resembled that of our 
huge serpents.It is probable that this strange creature, whose extraor¬ 

dinary long neck would prevent it from moving rapidly through the water, 
swam upon the surface, or kept close to the shore in shallow water, where, 
concealed among the algae (sea-weed), it might both ensnare its prey and 
hide itself from 
the piercing 
gaze of the 
ich thyosauri, 
its most for¬ 
midable ene¬ 
my.” 

Buckland, 
the great nat¬ 
uralist, who has 
done so much 
for science, 
while pursuing 
his researches 
in West Eng¬ 
land discovered 
the remains of 


a marine croco- skeeeton of the megatherium. 

dile, to which 

he gave the name of megalosaurus (great lizard). This animal is the most 
remarkable of any that is known to have existed. Its form was somewhat like 
a crocodile, but more nearly resembling the Nile monitor, its teeth being 
almost identical in appearance to those of the monitor, but it was so very large, in 
proportion to the crocodile, that it must have exceeded seventy feet in length 
—a lizard large as a whale. Owen, however, thinks it did not exceed thirty feet. 

The celebrated gravel pits near Maestricht have disclosed the bones of 
creatures scarcely less wonderful, among others being- those of a lizard but little 
inferior to the megalosaurus. This gigantic species was called the mesosaurus 
(monitor lizard) which to a gigantic size of twenty-five feet in length was added 
a dreadful armament of immense teeth, arranged in rows like those of the shark. 

Dr. Mantell, another enthusiastic palaeontologist, discovered the remains of 
an animal which evidently belongs to the same family as the megalosaurus , 
but its material differences entitle it to the distinct name which has been given 
to it, viz., iguanodon (a name given to indicate its resemblance to the iguana). 
It was an herbivorous lizard, and its teeth and toes particularly so closely 
resembled the iguana, that hence the name. Its stature was about twenty- 
ii 



162 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


eight feet, and it is believed to have been the tallest of all creatures on the 
Eastern Continent; its length was nearly thirty feet. A splendid plaster speci • 
men of this remarkable reptile may be seen in the Smithsonian Institute at 
Washington City. 

We have next to describe the most grotesque and horrifying creature that 
inhabited the ancient world, a wild phantasm of nature, more terrible in its 
appearance than a nightmare conception. Its hybridity was so remarkable that 
it was reptile, bird and bat all at once, having the characteristics and sem¬ 
blance of each. The scientific appellation of this mongrel monstrosity is ptero- 
dactylus 1 which is a Greek word that implies wing-toed. The name was given 
it because the fifth toe of its anterior limbs was enormously elongated into a 
ribbed stem, intended to support a membrane which made the wing. This 



PTERODACTYL RESTORED. 


wing very much resembled the bat’s, except that the phalanges were much 
stronger in proportion, as were also the muscles, so that its flight was very much 
swifter. The nose was prolonged into a beak which was severely armed with 
teeth. 

Dr. Buckland, in his “ Bridgewater Treatise,” expresses the opinion that 
the pterodactyl possessed the faculty of swimming, and also that it fed on 
fishes, which it caught by dashing down upon them after the manner of various 
fish-catching sea-birds. Cuvier judged it to be nocturnal, from the extraordinary 
size of its eyes, and this probability is increased by its other bat-like charac¬ 
teristics. Mangin says : 

“ The size and shape of the feet prove that these animals could stand erect 
with firmness, their wings folded, and that they thus possessed a mode of pro¬ 
gression analogous to that of birds ; like them, also, they could perch upon 








THE LIVING WORLD. 


163 


trees, while at the same time they had the faculty of climbing along rocks and 
cliffs, assisting themselves with their feet and fingers like our modern bats and 
lizards.” 



. “ The most striking peculiarity of this animal,” says Dr. Hoefer, “ is the 
curious assemblage of vigorous wings, joined to a reptile’s body; the imagina¬ 
tion of poets alone has hitherto framed anything resembling it. Hence the 
description of those dragons which fable represents to us as having, in the early 
ages of the world, disputed with man the sovereignty of the earth, and whose 
destruction was one of the 
glorious attributes of the 
mythic heroes, gods and 
demigods.” 

There was one other 
monster which I must not 
omit to mention, since 
its importance among the 
antediluvian inhabitants SKUIX op TBE TEU!OSAOTDS . 

of the deep can hardly 

be over-estimated. I refer to the Teleosaurus , or perfect lizard, teleo being 
the Greek word for complete, perfect. The plesiosaurus and ichthyosaurus were 
destitute of scaly covering, but the teleosaurus was clothed with an adamantine 
coat of mail, which would have been impervious to the heaviest rifle-ball 
of to-day. It was also armed with tremendous teeth, and its massive jaws, 
which it could open to a distance of six feet, made it capable of swallow¬ 
ing the largest ox. This fearful animal was thirty feet in length, and is 
supposed to have been the most destructive monster of the mighty deep. 



Another saurian known as the Dicynodon (from the Greek meaning “two 
tusks”) was formerly a habitant of African regions, the fossil remains of one 
having been found by Mr. Bain, in that country, in 1845. The skull of this 
creature presented characteristics alike common to the crocodile, tortoise and 
lizard, while the teeth were clearly those of a mammal. The lower jaw 

was remarkably tortoise-like, carrying the resemblance even to having the 
anterior part sheathed with horn. In size it was equal to a walrus, 

and like the walrus was armed with two tusks growing downward, which 
it probably used to dig up roots of water plants upon which it no doubt 
fed, as the teeth indicate that it was both a vegetable and flesh-eating 

animal. The Belodon was another creature of appalling aspect, representing 




164 THE LIVING WORLD. 

the immediate link between the Dicynodon and crocodile of the present period, 
as the illustration shows. Its length was about thirty feet. 

From the saurian creatures above described the crocodile and alligator 
descended, diminished in size in consonance with the changes which time has 



beeoddn RESTORED (from the tn'as). 


wrought, as already explained. Though smaller than their ancestors, and 
modified materially in aspect, they are still the most formidable of amphibians, 
being quite as dangerous in the water as the tiger is on land. 

The Crocodile. In the ancient species described we find them all 
provided with paddles instead of feet, because there was little land in 

existence during the secondary period, and 
even the land that was formed had not yet 
begun to be prolific with plant life. But the 
land gradually encroached upon the water, 
the temperature became lower, and vegetation 
sprang up while animal life increased rapidly 
along the newly formed shores. This change 
was followed by others equally pronounced 
in the animal world, for the saurians gradu¬ 
ally exchanged their paddles for feet; or to 
be more definite, the saurians of the second¬ 
ary period, finding their feeding grounds 
growing less, in their unappeased voracity 
fell to devouring each other, while many 
others were caught in pools and being un¬ 
able to effect their escape across land into 
deeper water perished as the pools dried 
up. Thus from several causes the last of 
the mighty creatures, whose fossil remains we 
now study with so much interest, became 
extinct, but were succeeded by their milder congeners which the Creator pro¬ 
vided with feet instead of flippers, and thus adapted them to conditions corn- 
portable with the regions in which they were appointed to live. 

The True Crocodile. This reptile is peculiar to the Nile river, where, 



THE MYtOBON. 




THE LIVING WORLD. 165 

though not nearly so numerous as formerly, it is still quite common. The 
animal is also found in the Niger river, and in other water-courses of mid- 
Africa, though some naturalists claim that the species is somewhat different 
from those in the Nile, a point which, however, still remains in dispute, with 
probabilities favoring their identity. In the times of the Jewish oppression, 


SAURIANS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. 


many solemn ceremonies of veneration, to the adoration of this creature, and after 
death the body was most carefully embalmed and saturated* with sweet spices. 


when Egypt was in its glory and the Pharaohs ruled amid surroundings 
of unexampled splendor, the Nile crocodiles were worshipped as embodiments of 
supreme power. A special temple was erected at Memphis and dedicated, with 


CROCODILES OF THE NILE. 











THE LIVING WORLD. 


166 


In the crocodile proper there is an uninterrupted series of teeth round both 
jaws, by which feature it is distinguishable from the alligator, which has every 
fourth tooth of the under jaw fitting into a corresponding socket of the upper 
one. 

In Central Africa the crocodile not unfrequently attains a length of thirty 
feet, and Sir Samuel Baker declares that he shot one that measured thirty-three 
feet, which is believed to be the maximum. The food of the crocodile is prefer¬ 
ably putrid meat, but it will bolt whole fish and small quadrupeds. On the under 
side of the lower jaw is an opening from which the animal has the ability to 
force at will a liquid that has an overpowering odor of musk, which Mr. Bell 
declares the creature uses to attract fish to its haunt. 

The Double Crested Crocodile is a most common species of India, found 
principally near the mouths of rivers that lead into the Indian Ocean. It is also 
fairly plentiful in the running streams of Java, and occasionally in those of 
China. It derives its name from the fact that it is furnished with two promi¬ 
nent ridges which extend over the jaw-near the eyes. This species is extremely 
cowardly, and takes to precipitate flight at the sight of man. Should they be 

found in a 
shallow basin 
where escape 
is impossible, 
ostrich-like 
they will hide 
the head by 
driving it into 
the mud and 
remain uncon¬ 
scious of the 
exposure of 
the body. 
Concerning 
this disposi¬ 
tion to burrow in the mud at the approach of danger, Sir Edward Tennent 
writes: “ Some years ago, during the progress of the pearl fishery, Mr. Horton 
employed men to drag for crocodiles in a pond which was infested by 
them in the immediate, vicinity of Aripo. The pool was about fifty yards 
in length by ten or twelve wide, shallowing gradually toward the edge, 
and not exceeding four or five feet in the deepest part. As the party 
approached the pond, from twenty to thirty reptiles, which had been basking in 
the sun, rose and fled to the water. A net specially weighted so as to sink its 
lower edge to the bottom was then stretched from bank to bank, and dragged to- 
the further end of the pond followed by a line of men with poles to drive the 
crocodiles forward. So complete was the arrangement that it appeared not one of 
the creatures could avoid the net, yet to the astonishment of the party not one 
of the reptiles was entangled. Their escape could only have been effected by 
burrowing in the soft mud.” 

The Marsh Crocodile is found in various parts of Asia, but its principal 
habitat is Australia, where they have been killed measuring above thirty feet 
in length. This species has also a habit of burrowing in the mud, where it 



Ga.vial (G. gangeticus). 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


167 


remains during dry seasons and until rains come to soften its bed and 
give a covering of water. The adult animal is shy, and seldom commits any 
ravages, but its young are particularly ferocious, apparently being unconscious of 
fear. Those not exceeding ten inches in length will seize and hold fast on to 
a stick thrust at them, and a finger would invite an attack no less readily. 

The Gavial is the best known, because most ferocious and voracious of the 
several crocodile species in India. It retains a remarkable resemblance to the 
ancient teleosaurus, of which creature it is certainly a direct descendant. The 
Ganges river fairly swarms with these monster saurians, and to their great 
number and the depredations they commit is added a superstitious reverence 
for the animal. The practice of sacrificing infants to this monster is now 
uncommon, on account of British influence dominating in the native customs, 
but in former years the sight was frequent about Benares of a mother carrying 
her child towards the Ganges to offer it as a sacrifice to the gavial god; the 
fond mother, believing she was preparing a flowery way to heaven for her child, 
would pause upon the river’s 
bank and cover it with pas¬ 
sionate kisses, fondle it in a 
thousand ways, as if deferring 
the dread act about to be com¬ 
mitted, until a fairly bursting 
heart was overcome by religious 
devotion, when she would toss 
the innocent offspring to the 
cruel monsters that were wait¬ 
ing for the sacrificial feast. 

Never more than a single cry 
would fall upon her ears, for 
in an instant the little innocent 
would be torn into a hundred 
pieces, and only a bloody dye 
on the surface remain to show, 
for a few moments, where the 
tragedy occurred. 

The gavial differs in appear¬ 
ance from others of the croco¬ 
dilian family by having a much 
greater prolongation of nose, upon the end of which is a prominent, wart-like 
nodule, which it uses to root in the mud, like a hog. 

The Margined Crocodile is found principally in South Africa, its distin¬ 
guishing feature being a compression, amounting to an indentation of the fore¬ 
head, while the nozzle is somewhat shorter. But in other respects it is identi¬ 
cal with the Nile species. TT , , 

The Alligator proper is found only in waters of the Western Hemisphere, 
where there are several species called indiscriminately alligator , cayman , croco¬ 
dile and jacara. The difference between these, if real difference does exist, is 
so slight that no naturalist has as yet attempted to show wherein it lies. In 
fact aside from very small differences in appearance, and the disparity m size, 
alligators and crocodiles are practically the same animal, the larger being more 



ALLIGATORS OF AMERICA. 


i68 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


ferocious, but in habits, aside from courage, the identity is pronounced. Gener¬ 
ally, all naturalists recognize the impossibility of separating the several species 
by well-defined differences, .on which account alligators and crocodiles are 
described as inhabiting alike the waters of the Old and New World. 

We will now proceed to describe more particularly the appearance of the 
several species as a whole, and to illustrate their habits by incidents and adven¬ 
tures from the experiences of those who have hunted the animal, or fallen acci¬ 
dentally within its power. With the differences given it will still be seen how 
close is the family resemblance to the teleosaurus , the belodon , and to one another. 

ADVENTURES WITH CROCODILES. 

The most pronounced distinguishing characteristic in the crocodile species is 
in the shape of the head; gavials have the longest muzzle, the true crocodiles the 
next, while the nose of the alligator is shortest. In the latter the body is 
thick, teeth irregular in length and size, webs of the toes only half the length, 
and their haunts are chiefly in the fresh water of lagoons and river mouths. 
All the several species are covered with a thick, tessellated or checkered skin, 
that resembles scales, but the true scale is wanting. These squares are so indu¬ 
rated as to deflect a rifle-ball, when fired at ordinary range, though should the 
ball strike a crease, which lies between the squares of bony skin, it easily 
penetrates. It is this fact that has caused a diversity of opinion as to the vul¬ 
nerableness of the alligator. 

All of the several species live upon similar food, and take their prey in 
an identical manner. At the point of the long.nose are the nasal cavities, by 
which the creature is able to project its muzzle scarcely above the surface of the 
water and yet breathe freely; by this provision of its nose it is also able to 
approach its prey unperceived. Being of remarkable activity in water the ani¬ 
mal will seize the nose of a drinking quadruped, and with a spasmodic motion 
of almost lightning celerity incurve its body and strike the prey a powerful 
blow with its jagged tail. If the victim is large enough to wage a contest it 
is dragged under water and there held until drowned. The food, however taken, 
is not eaten under water, but conveyed to some spot and hidden until decom¬ 
position is somewhat advanced, when it is dragged out upon the shore and there 
devoured, for the crocodile cannot breathe under water, though an inflation of its 
lungs will serve it for some considerable time. 

In the Ganges the crocodiles may be seen almost constantly lying on shore, 
or floating, with the nose scarcely observable, with the stream, watching for car¬ 
cases in a state of putrefaction. Sometimes a carrion bird may be seen hover¬ 
ing above or stationed upon a human body which the Hindoos in their super¬ 
stitious attachments have committed to the stream, which they look upon as the 
roadway to Paradise. But the vultures are not long permitted to enjoy their 
feast unmolested, for the watchful crocodiles make haste to dispute possession, 
which they more readily accomplish by dragging the body first under water 
and then conveying it to the shore. 

BATTLE WITH THE CROCODILES. 

It is a very common thing for the native princes of India, living in the 
neighborhood of large rivers where crocodiles abound, to have them caught for 
the purpose of entertaining their court and guests, by making them fight, or 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


169 

causing them to be attacked by other animals. Captain Basil Hall has given 
the following animated account of a fight of this kind, got up for the amuse¬ 
ment of the Admiral, Sir R. Hood, and performed by a corps of Malays in the 
British service : 

“ Very early (he says) in the morning, the party were summoned from their 
beds, to set forth on the expedition. In other countries, the hour of getting 
up may be left to choice; in India, when anything active is to be done, it is a 
matter of necessity; for after the sun has gained even a few degrees of altitude, 
the heat and discomfort, as well as the danger of exposure, become so great, 
that all pleasure is at an end. The day, 
therefore, had scarcely begun to dawn, when 
we all cantered up to the scene of action. 

“ The ground lay as flat as a marsh for 
many leagues, and was spotted with small 
stagnant lakes connected by sluggish streams, 
scarcely moving over beds of mud, between 
banks fringed with a rank crop of draggled 
weeds. The chill atmosphere of the morning 
felt so thick and clammy it was impossible 
not to think of agues, jungle-fevers, and all 
the hopeful family of malaria. The hardy 
native soldiers, who had occupied the ground 
during the night, were drawn up to receive 
the Admiral, and a very queer guard of 
honor they formed. The whole regiment 
had stripped off their uniform, and every 
other stitch of clothing, save a pair of short 
trousers, and a kind of sandal. I11 place of 
a firelock, each man bore in his hand a 
slender pole, about six feet in length, to the 
extremity of which was attached the bayonet 
of his musket. His only other weapon was 
the formidable Malay creese, a sort of dag¬ 
ger, or small two-edged sword. 

“ Soon after the commander-in-chief came 
to the ground, the regiment was divided 
into two main parties, and a body of reserves. 

The principal columns facing, one to the 
right, the other to the left, proceeded to oc- harpooning an alligator. 

cupy different points in one of the sluggish 

canals, connecting the pools scattered over the plain. These detachments 
being stationed about a mile from one another, enclosed an interval where, 
from some peculiar circumstances known only to the Malays, who are 
passionately fond of the sport, the crocodiles were sure to be found in 
great numbers. The troops formed themselves across the canals in three par¬ 
allel lines, ten to twelve feet apart; but the men in each line stood side by 
side, merely leaving room enough to wield their pikes. The canal may have 
been about four or five feet deep, in the middle of the stream, if stream it can 
be called, which scarcely moved at all. The color of the water, when undis- 






170 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


turbed, was a shade between ink and coffee; but no sooner had the triple line 
of Malays set themselves in motion, than the consistence and color became like 
that of pea-soup. 

“ On everything being reported ready, the soldiers planted their pikes be¬ 
fore them in the mud, each man crossing his neighbor’s weapon, and at the 
word ‘ March,’ away they all started in full cry, sending forth a shout, or war- 
whoop, sufficient to curdle the blood of those on land, whatever effect it may 
have had on the inhabitants of the deep. As the two divisions of the invading 
army gradually approached each other in pretty close column, screaming, and 
yelling, and striking their pikes deep in the slime before them, the startled 
animals naturally retired towards the unoccupied centre. Generally speaking, 
the alligators, or crocodiles, had sense enough to turn their long tails upon 
their assailants, and to scuttle off, as fast as they could, towards the middle 
part of the canal. But every now and then, one of the terrified monsters 
floundered backwards, and, by retreating in the wrong direction, broke through 
the first, second, and even third line of pikes. This was the perfection of sport 
to the delighted Malays. A double circle of soldiers was speedily formed round 
the wretched aquatic who had presumed to pass the barrier. By means of well- 
directed thrusts with numberless bayonets, and the pressure of some dozens of 
feet, the poor brute was often fairly driven beneath his native mud. When 
once there, his enemies half-choked and half-spitted him, till at last they put 
an end to his miserable days, in regions quite out of sight, and in a manner 
as inglorious as can well be conceived. 

“ The intermediate space was now pretty well crowded with crocodiles swim¬ 
ming about in the utmost terror, at times diving below, and anon showing their 
noses above the surface of the dirty stream; or occasionally making a furious 
bolt, in sheer despair, right at the phalanx of Malays. On these occasions, half- 
a-dozen of the soldiers were often upset, and their pikes either broken or twisted 
out of their hands, to the infinite amusement of their companions, who speedily 
closed up the broken ranks. There were none killed, but many wounded ; yet 
no man flinched in the least. 

“ The perfection of the sport appeared to consist in detaching a single croco¬ 
dile from the rest, surrounding and attacking him separately, and spearing him 
until he was almost dead. The Malays then, by main strength, forked him 
aloft over their heads on the end of a dozen pikes, and by a sudden jerk, 
pitched the conquered monster far on the shore. As the crocodiles are amphibi¬ 
ous, they kept to the water no longer than they found they had an advantage 
in that element; but on the two columns of their enemy closing up, the mon¬ 
sters lost all discipline, floundered up the weedy banks, scuttling away to the 
right and left, helter-skelter. ‘ Sauve qui peut! ’ seemed to be the fatal watch¬ 
word for their total rout. That prudent cry, would no doubt, have saved many 
of them, had not the Malays judiciously placed beforehand their reserve on each 
side of the river, to receive the distracted fugitives, who, bathed in mud, and half 
dead with terror, but still in a prodigious fury, dashed off at right angles from 
the canal, in hopes of gaining the shelter of a swampy pool, overgrown with reeds 
and bulrushes, but which most of the poor beasts were doomed never to reach. 
The concluding battle between these retreating and desperate crocodiles and the 
Malays of the reserve, was formidable enough. Indeed, had not the one party 
been fresh, the other exhausted, one confident, the other broken in spirit, it is 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


171 


quite possible that the crocodiles might have worsted the Malays. It was difficult, 
indeed, to say which of the two looked at that moment the more savage; the 
triumphant natives, or the flying troop of crocodiles walloping away from the 
water. Many on both sides were wounded, and all covered with slime and weeds. 
There could not have been fewer than thirty or forty crocodiles killed, though 
they were generally small, the largest hardly exceeding ten feet in length.” 

Concerning the similarity that exists between the several species Goldsmith, 
following Buffon as his guide, thus writes 
confirmatively of what I have said : 

“ Of this terrible animal there are two 
kinds, the crocodile, properly so called, and 
the cayman or alligator. Travellers, how¬ 
ever, have rather made the distinctions 
than nature, for in the general outline 
and in the nature of these two animals 
they are entirely the same. It would be 
speaking more properly to call these 
animals the crocodiles of the Eastern 
and Western world; for, in books of voy¬ 
ages, they are so entirely confounded 
together that there is no knowing whether 
the Asiatic animal be the crocodile of 
Asia or the alligator of the Western 
world. The distinctions usually made 
between the crocodile and the alligator 
are these: the body of the crocodile is 
more slender than that of the alligator, 
its snout runs off tapering from the fore¬ 
head, like that of a greyhound, while 
that of the other is indented, like the 
nose of a lap-dog. The crocodile has a 
much wider swallow, and is of an ash 
color; the alligator is black, varied with 
white, and is thought not to be so mis¬ 
chievous. All these distinctions, how¬ 
ever, are very slight, and can be reckoned 
little more than minute variations.” 

THE TIGER AND THE CROCODILE. 

It frequently happens, in its depreda¬ 
tions along the bank, that the crocodile 
seizes on a creature as formidable as 
itself, and meets with a most desperate 
resistance. We are told of frequent combats between the crocodile and the 
tiger. All creatures of the tiger kind are continually oppressed by a parching 
thirst, which keeps them in the vicinity of great rivers, whither they descend to 
drink’very frequently. It is upon these occasions that they are seized by the 
crocodile, and they die not unrevenged. The instant they are seized upon they 
turn with the greatest agility and force their claws into the crocodile’s eyes, 



AN ALLIGATOR TRAP. 















172 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


while he plunges with his fierce antagonist into the river. There they continue 
to struggle for some time, till at last the tiger is drowned. 

In this manner the crocodile seizes and destroys all animals, and is equally 
dreaded by all. There is no animal but man alone that can combat it with 
success. We are assured by Labat that a negro, with no other weapons than 
a knife in his right hand and his left arm wrapped round with a cowhide, 
ventures boldly to attack this animal in his own element. As soon as he 
approaches the crocodile he presents his left arm, which the animal swallows 
most greedily, but sticking in his throat, the negro has time to give the creature 
several stabs in the softer parts of the neck, while the water getting in the 
mouth, thus held involuntarily open, the animal is soon dispatched. Though 
we have Labat as authority, we can no less doubt the truth of this relation. 

HUNTING THE CROCODILE. 

A common means of killing the crocodile practised by the natives of north¬ 
western Africa is thus described by Dr. Ruppell: 

“ The most favorable season is either the winter, when the animal usually 
sleeps on sand-banks, luxuriating in the rays of the sun, or the spring, after the 
pairing time, when the female regularly watches the sand-islands, where she has 
buried her eggs. The natives find out the place, and on the south side of it, 
that is to the leeward, dig a hole in the sand, throwing the earth to the side 
which they expect the animal to take. Then they conceal themselves, and the 
crocodile comes to its accustomed spot and soon falls asleep. The hunters then 
dart their harpoons with all their force at the animal, for in order that the 
strokes may be successful, the harpoon head ought to penetrate to the depth of 
at least four inches, that the barb may be firmly fixed in the flesh. Upon being 
wounded the crocodile rushes for the water, and the hunters retreat to their 
canoes. A piece of wood, attached to the harpoon line, swims on the water and 
indicates the direction in which the crocodile is moving. The huntsmen, by 
pulling on the line, drag the beast to the surface of the water where it is struck 
with other harpoons until destroyed. ” 

A decidedly novel method of effecting its capture is often put into execution 
by the colored people living near the bayous of Louisiana and Florida, who affix a 
strong rope having a noose at the pendant end to the top of a stiff sapling, which 
is then bent over by the force of three or four men until the noose can be made 
fast around a circle of sticks placed in the ground some six inches high, and set 
with triggers, baited with a piece of putrid flesh. When the alligator seizes the 
meat the noose is loosed and catching him about the neck raises the victim half 
off the ground, where all his struggles can avail nothing, and he soon strangles. 

The shooting of alligators has long been a favorite pastime with sport-lov¬ 
ing tourists who visit the swamps of Florida, while thousands are annually 
killed for their hides, which are now used for many useful purposes. Indeed 
these uses have served to make the people of Florida more regardful of the life of 
the alligator and they now protect him from indiscriminate slaughter by severe 
prohibitory laws. 

HOW THE CROCODILE BREEDS. 

All crocodiles breed near fresh waters; and though they are sometimes 
found at sea, yet that may be considered rather as a place of excursion than abode. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


*73 


They produce their young by eggs, and for this purpose the female, when she 
comes to lay, chooses a place by the side of a river, or some fresh water 
lake, to deposit her brood in. She always pitches upon an extensive sandy 
shore, where she may dig a hole without danger of detection from the ground 
being fresh turned up. The shore must also be gentle and shelving to the water, 
for the greater convenience of the animal’s going and returning; and a con¬ 
venient place must be found near the edge of the stream, that the young may 
have a shorter way to go. When all these requisites are adjusted, the animal 
is seen cautiously stealing upon the shore to deposit her burden. The presence 
of a man, a beast, or even a bird, is sufficient to deter her at that time; and if 
she perceives any creature looking on, she infallibly returns. If, however, noth¬ 
ing appears, she then goes to work, scratching up the sand with her fore-paws, 
and making a hole pretty deep in the shore. There she deposits from eighty 
to a hundred eggs, of the size of a tennis-ball, and of the same figure, covered 
with a tough white skin, like parchment. She takes above an hour to perform 
this task; and then covering up the place so artfully that it can scarcely be 
perceived, she goes back to return again the next day. Upon her return, with 
the same precaution as before, she lays about the same number of eggs; and the 
day following also a like number. Thus having deposited her whole quantity, 
/and having covered them close up in the sand, they are soon vivified by the 
heat of the sun; at the end of thirty days the young ones begin to break 
open the shell. At this time the female is instinctively taught that her young 
ones want relief; and she goes upon land to scratch away the 6and, and set 
them free. Her brood quickly avail themselves of their liberty; a part run 
unguided to the water; another part ascend the back of the female, and are 
carried thither in greater safety. But the moment they arrive at the water, all 
natural connection is at an end ; when the female has introduced her young to their 
natural element, not only she, but the male, becomes among the number of their 
most formidable enemies, and devour as many of them as they can. The whole 
brood scatters into different parts of the bottom ; by far the greater number is 
destroyed, and the rest find safety in their agility or minuteness. 

But it is not the crocodile alone that is thus found to thin their numbers; 
the eggs of this animal are not only a delicious feast to the savage, but are 
eagerfy sought after by every beast and bird of prey. The ichneumon was 
erected into a deity among the ancients for its success in destroying the eggs 
of these monsters; at present that species of the vulture called the Gallinazo 
is their most prevailing enemy. All along the banks of great rivers, for thou¬ 
sands of miles, the crocodile is seen to propagate in numbers that would soon 
overrun the earth, but for the vulture, that seems appointed by Providence to 
abridge its fecundity. These birds are ever found in greatest numbers where 
the crocodile is most numerous ; and hiding themselves within the thick branches 
of the trees that shade the banks of the river, they watch the female in silence, 
and permit her to lay all her eggs without interruption. Then when she has 
retired they encourage each other with cries to the spoil; and flocking all 
together upon the hidden treasure, tear up the eggs, and devour them in a 
much quicker time than they were deposited. Nor are they less diligent m 
attending the female while she is carrying her young to the water ; for if any 
one of them happen to drop by the way, it is sure to receive no mercy. 


I 74 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


OPHIDIA—SNAKES. 

In the natural sequence of changes produced by a gradual cooling of the 
earth, as already explained, land animals became more numerous as the waters 
receded, and following amphibious saurians, other creeping and no less repul¬ 
sive creatures appeared, adaptable to the modified temperature and conditions. 
Reptiles in this next order are classed by naturalists as Ophidia , a Greek word 
meaning serpent , and under this head therefore, must follow descriptions of all 
the numerous species, which have been divided by Lacepede into eight genera, 
each of which are again subdivided into several classes. The eight genera 
comprise the Boa , which contains 11 species; the Vipers , of which there are 
196 species; Rattlesnakes , with 26 species; Snakes (under which name the 
harmless find classification), 24 species; the Amphisbcena , a double-headed, 5 
species ; Lang rata, 1, Coecilia 2, and Acrocboid , 1. 

All true snakes, whether venomous or harmless, are clothed with a scaly 
skin which they shed at least once each year, and during this season they are 
irritable and sluggish, giving every indication that the change of skin is 
accompanied by more or less physical disturbance, if not actual pain. The 
old skin begins t.o peel first from the head, splitting on top and fleecing down 
over the eyes and then breaking in a line along the back. This dead integument 
sometimes comes off in perfect condition, and with the exception of a single 
rift along the back has all the appearance, save its transparency, of the snake 
itself, every scale, and even the delicate covering of the eyes having a most 
natural appearance. 

Legs, or even the rudiments of limbs, are wanting except in a few of the 
largest species, where a posterior protuberance, as in the Boa , is barely 
perceptible. Yet while possessing no limbs these reptiles move with astonishing 
ease and some few with very great celerity, whether on land or in water. 
Their movements are accomplished by the use of the scales upon the belly, 
called scutes. These scutes perform the service of legs, by which the creature 
can erect and firmly hold itself to any rough surface, and by using them 
consecutively drag itself along. All snakes, however, are unable to move 
forward over a perfectly smooth surface. To the strange provisions made to 
enable the serpent reptiles to travel, is added a wonderful formation of structure, 
by which the body is capable of remarkable recurvation and flexibility, due to 
the ball-joints of both ribs and vertebrae. 

The heart in reptiles is so constructed, that at each of its contractions 
only a portion of the blood which it receives is transmitted to the lungs, the 
remainder of this fluid is returned to circulate again, without having passed 
into the lungs and, consequently, without having been subject to respiration; 
hence it results that the action of oxygen on the blood is greatly less than 
in mammiferous animals and birds, where all the blood by passing through 
their lungs is exposed to the action of the air. Consequently, as respiration 
causes the heat in the blood and gives to the muscular fibre its susceptibility 
for nervous irritation, the temperature of reptiles is much lower,' and their 
muscular power greatly weaker than that of the mammalia and birds. There¬ 
fore they are said to be cold-blooded animals. Their general habits are also 
much less energetic, almost all their motions consisting of crawling and 
swimming, and although several species run or leap, at times with considerable 
facility, yet upon the whole their actions are sluggish. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


T 75 


MONSTER SERPENTS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

A greater variety of forms exists among reptiles than is found among 
warm-blooded creatures and it is in the production of these forms that nature 
seems to have imagined shapes of the most weirdly fantastic description, and 
modifying in every possible manner the general plan which she has prescribed 
to herself in the mammalia class of animals. To these hideous forms is added 
a deadly venom which has served to render all serpents detestable in the eye 
of man, whose hand is ever raised against them, as the Creator decreed after the 
fall of Adam and Eve. 

Though snakes are found inhabiting nearly all regions of the earth, like 
others of the reptile family they are most numerous, venomous and formidable 
in the tropics, and in places where, from the exuberance of vegetation, man 
has been able to make the least progress. For this reason we may not reject 
as entirely improbable the stories that have come down to us from the ancients 
of the ravages committed by monster serpents that roamed the solitudes of the 
world before man had become equipped with effective weapons with which to 
oppose them. 

The finding of fossil remains of gigantic saurians, such as have been de¬ 
scribed, gives us good reason for supposing that at one time there existed ser¬ 
pents of equally surprising proportions, and indeed the analogy which exists 
between all creatures of the reptilian order lead irresistibly to this conclusion, 
oven though their fossilized remains hare not as yet been discovered. The 
nature of the forests which once clothed the earth, and the other animal life 
that revelled therein make it extremely probable that serpents grew to lengths 
of one hundred feet or more, in which event it would be most difficult for man, 
with the rude and insufficient weapons with which he was armed, to destroy 
them. To such enormous and powerful creatures the lion, tiger, or even ele¬ 
phant itself, would be but a feeble opponent. As Goldsmith observes: 

“ The dreadful monster spread desolation round him; every creature that 
had life was devoured, or fled to a distance. That horrible fcetor [odor], which 
even the commonest and the most harmless snakes are . still found to diffuse, 
might, in these larger ones, become too powerful for any living being to with¬ 
stand; and while they preyed without distinction, they might thus also have 
poisoned the atmosphere around them. In this manner, having for ages lived 
in the hidden and unpeopled forest, and finding as their appetites were more 
powerful, the quantity of their prey decreasing, it is possible they might ven¬ 
ture boldly from their retreats, into the more cultivated parts of the country, 
and carry consternation among mankind, as they had before desolation among 
the lower ranks of nature.” 

Indeed, we have many histories of antiquity presenting us such a picture, 
and exhibiting a whole nation sinking under the ravages of a single serpent. 
At that time, man had not learned the art of uniting the efforts of many to 
effect one great purpose. Opposing multitudes only added new victims to the 
general calamity, and increased mutual embarrassment and terror. The animal 
was, therefore, to be singly opposed by him who had the greatest strength the 
best armor, and the most undaunted courage. In such an encounter hundreds 
must have fallen; till one, more lucky than the rest by a fortunate blow, or 
by taking the monster in its torpid interval, and surcharged with spoil, might 
kill and thus rid his country of the destroyer, as Hercules is represented to 


176 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


have done, and as St. George is said to have accomplished. Such was the 
original occupation of heroes: and those who first obtained that name, from 
their destroying the ravagers of the earth, gained it much more deservedly than 
their successors, who acquired their reputation only for their skill in destroying 
each other. But as we descend into more enlightened antiquity, we find these 
animals less formidable, as being attacked in a more successful manner. We 
are told, that while Regulus led his army along the banks of the river Bagrada, 
in Africa, an enormous serpent disputed his passage over. We are assured by 
Pliny, who says, that he himself saw the skin, that it was a hundred and twenty 
feet long, and that it had destroyed many of the army. At last, however, the 
battering engines were brought out against it; and these assailing it at a dis¬ 
tance, the reptile was soon destroyed. Its spoils were carried to Rome, and the 
general was decreed an ovation for his success. There are, perhaps, few facts 
better ascertained in history than this. An ovation was the most distinguished 
honor conferred by the Romans, and was only given for some signal exploit, 
therefore it is scarcely possible that any historian could invent a story of such 
ovation being given without being exposed. The skin of the serpent destroyed 
by the army of Regulus was taken to Rome and kept on exhibition in the 
capitol for at least fifteen years, where Pliny affirms that he frequently saw it. 

HOW SERPENTS SWALLOW CREATURES LARGER THAN THEMSELVES. 

Among the most singular characteristics peculiar to serpents is the power 
which they alone possess of swallowing a prey the diameter of whose body ex¬ 
ceeds many fold that of their own. This wonderful ability is due to the fact 
that their jaws are not fitted with sockets so as to work on a hinge as are those 
of other creatures; on the contrary their union is by elastic muscles capable 
of very great expansion, while the throat and gullet are capable of like dila¬ 
tation. 

All species are provided with teeth, the non-venomous having a row on 
either side of re-curved, hollow and immovable grasping teeth, while the 
venomous have two fangs in a movable palate by which, like the shark, they 
can erect or depress them flat upon the roof of the mouth at will. At the 
base of the fang is a sac in which the virus is secreted. When the creature 
bites, a pressure on this sac forces the virus out and it flows down through a 
duct, which is concealed in a groove, along the inner side of the fang and 
into the Wound. If the fangs be extracted, which is a simple operation to 
perform, the reptile remains harmless forever after, though when the non- 
venomous lose their teeth they are very soon replaced by others. 

The eyes of all snakes are small and malignant in expression, and, owing 
to the crystalline humor within the globe, are hard as horn. Some few possess 
upper lids and wink naturally, while in others there is only an under lid, and 
in yet others both lids are wanting. 

The aural vents are scarcely distinguishable and the conduits for smelling 
are entirely absent, by which it is supposed that serpents do not possess the 
sense of smell and that their hearing is doubtful, 'foiey probably have to 
trust to a keen vision and their extreme sensibility to vibrations, as do the 
fishes. 

The tongue is generally long and bifurcated (forked), most sensitive to 
touch, and may be projected by a provision of two extensible tendons at the 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


177 


root, enabling the creature to shoot out that organ with great rapidity and at 
considerable length. It was formerly supposed, by persons ill informed, that 
serpents inflicted a poisonous sting with the tongue, a fancy perpetuated by 
many references made in standard works to the serpent’s sting. It is hardly 
necessary to say now that the tongue is quite as harmless as the track the 
creature makes in crawling. 

HOW SNAKES BRING FORTH AND PROTECT THEIR YOUNG. 

Many snakes bring forth their young alive, the eggs having been hatched' 
within the body, while others, notably the Boa, deposit their eggs in a nest and 
incubate them with the small amount of animal heat given off by the creature’s- 
body. Father Labat gives us the following remarkable experience with regard 
to the manner in which the viper produces its young: 

“I took a serpent of the viper kind, that was nine feet long, and ordered 
it to be opened in my presence. I then saw the manner in which the eggs 
of these animals lie in the womb. In this creature there were six eggs, each 
of the size of a goose egg, but longer, more pointed, and covered with a 
membranous skin, by which also they were united to each other. Each of 
these eggs contained from thirteen to fifteen young ones, about six inches 
long, and as thick as a goose-quill. Though the female from which they 
were taken was spotted, the young seemed to have a variety of colors very 
different from the parent; and this led me to suppose that the color was no 
characteristic mark among serpents. These little mischievous animals were no 
sooner let loose from the shell then they crept about, and put themselves into 
a threatening posture, coiling themselves up, and biting the stick with which 
I was destroying them. In this manner I killed seventy-four young ones; 
those that were contained in one of the eggs escaped at the place where the 
female was killed, by the bursting of the egg, and their getting among the 
bushes.” 

It has long been a question for debate among naturalists themselves 
whether or not any of the serpent species give protection to their young by 
providing a retreat for them through the mouth and into the stomach. Many 
stoutly deny, while others, backed by experience, affirm the truth, among the 
latter disputants being a majority of those whose opinions are considered au¬ 
thority. In further proof of the assertion I may add my own experience, which 
differs somewhat from that of’ others that I have read, in that while the asser¬ 
tion is that such protection is only given by venomous species, the story I 
have to tell is of a harmless striped ground snake, so beneficial to the farmer 
in ridding his fields of ground mice and noxious insects: One day I 
was walking near the river bank with a companion when our eyes fell upon a 
ground snake just as it was making its escape under a large board that had 
been deposited on the bank by a rise of the river. We naturally sought its 
life and shifting the board easily killed it before the reptile could reach 
another retreat, particularly as its movements seemed unnaturally slow. After 
mashing the head and giving the body a few strokes I picked the carcase up 
by the tail, when to our astonishment a dozen or more of its young, all 
marked exactly like the parent, ran out at the bruised mouth, but as I dropped 
the dead snake instantly about one half of them, after emerging, ran back 
again into their former receptacle, where I killed them. Thus the evidence 
12 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


178 

furnished to my own eyes of the statement as to the young of certain snakes 
seeking protection within the parent’s mouth and stomach is absolutely incon¬ 
testable. 

PROCESS OF A SNAKE SWALLOWING A FISH. 

I also had the pleasure once of beholding, and thus determining, the extra¬ 
ordinary amount of distention a snake is capable of, confirming my assertion 
that they can swallow a creature whose diameter is many times greater than 
their own. I was one time fishing in a slough, some five miles below Warsaw, 
Ill., in company with my father-in-law, when, having met with poor success, at 
the noon hour we retired to the shelter of a corn-crib, in which we had our 
lunch. The day was extremely sultry, on which account we did not resume 
fishing for probably two hours. I had left my pole thrust into the muddy 
bank, with the line cast and baited with angle-worm, hoping that during my 
temporary absence some wandering fish might find the morsel I had thus set 
out and become fast, a hope which was not disappointed. Returning to the spot 
at length I was much delighted at seeing my pole bending under a considerable 
strain, and eagerly I rushed down to complete the capture. What was my 
surprise, upon jerking up my line, to see dangling to my hook a water-snake 
(of the moccasin species), less than two feet in length. Great as was my sur¬ 
prise at this discovery, my astonishment was very much increased upon exam¬ 
ination to find that the snake was not hooked, but that it had seized upon and 
swallowed a cat-fish some six inches in length that had first become fast on 
the hook. The fish’s body had entirely disappeared down the snake’s gullet, 
leaving on either side of it, a few inches below the mouth, a remarkable dis¬ 
tention of the skin, through which it seemed the sharp, pectoral fins of the 
fish must surely cut their way. All who have done any fishing in our Western 
waters are familiar with the cat-fish, and most of my readers can testify to its 
ability to give a severe wound with the sharp and very hard fins that set so 
rigidly just behind the gills. These fins may be moved very slightly backwards, 
but the muscles will not permit of their movement forward, hence, as the fish 
was swallowed tail first and the spurs (fins) from point to point were certainly 
four inches, the distention of the snake’s mouth was most extraordinary to 
take in such an unyielding body; ten-fold more difficult than it would be to 
swallow a body twice the size, whose increase from the tail upward was gradual, 
thus giving the snake a chance to distend its jaws slowly, instead of by a 
spasmodic exertion expand them to the required extent, as must have been done. 

Since witnessing this remarkable feat I have been credulous enough to 
believe that a snake can swallow anything if only sufficient time be given him. 

Having thus briefly noticed some of the general characteristics of serpents, 
I will now proceed to a particular description of the more important species, 
such as the venomous and formidable, with casual notice of the common and 
harmless species, in order to enable the reader to distinguish those which are 
capable of inflicting deadly bites. 

The general rule, but to which there are not a few exceptions, is that all 
venomous snakes have thick bodies and the head short, the skull rising abruptly 
from the neck and being angular, with slight compression below the eyes. 
Their movements, too, are usually, though not always, slow. The non-venomous 
are slimmer, very long for the diameter, with tails terminating in a sharp 
point, colors brighter, and head long and shapely with pointed nozzle. 


i 7 9 


THE LIVING WORLD. 

Having last considered amphibious reptiles, in treating of snakes we will 
first describe some of the species that make their home chiefly in the water, 
among which we find only a single species, the moccasin, that is venomous, 
and another, the anaconda, that is otherwise formidable. 

The AVater Moccasin [Anristrodon pisrivorus) is found distributed over 
a large district of the United States, from the Mississippi valley to the Atlantic 
coast, and from the Gulf to the Northern States. But though many authori¬ 
ties declare it to be a most venomous reptile, without making any distinction, 
I must controvert the assertion and show wherein the error lies. Wood unhesi¬ 
tatingly pronounces all the varieties, including the water moccasin , black moc¬ 
casin , and water viper , as extremely poisonous, but residents along the Missis¬ 
sippi and other rivers and creeks of the North will dissent from this opinion. 
The true moccasin , most commonly called the swamp moccasin , is confined to 
bayous and swamp regions of the South, and is never found in clear running 
water. It is considerably thicker than others of the moccasin species, has a 
broader head, and the skin is lighter in color. Its bite is poisonous, though 
not nearly so dangerous as the rattlesnake or 
copperhead; in fact, it is doubtful if a single bite 
from it ever produced the death of a strong man, 
though the pain following is very severe, and 
does not abate for weeks. 

Of the latter two species, the black moccasin 
and water viper, nothing may be said to their 
discredit, so far as their ability to do any con¬ 
siderable harm is concerned. So far as my obser¬ 
vations go the two are identical; distinction 
being made by some naturalists by reason of 
the fact that the snake does not always keep 
one color, but becomes darker towards midsum¬ 
mer, due probably to its more constant exposure 
to the sun. Having often heard that the snake 
was poisonous, after killing a large one once 
I made a careful examination of its mouth in which there was not 
discoverable either fangs or poison sacs, nor any other of the charac¬ 
teristics which distinguish venomous reptiles. Its teeth were well developed 
and eight on a side, all recurved, which serve the species most admirably 
in taking and retaining its prey, consisting of fish, frogs, young musk¬ 
rats, slugs, or probably any small animal that might venture near its haunts. 
My home when a boy was in a village on the Ohio River, and curving 
half round the town was a creek in which there were fairly myriads of 
moccasins that showed themselves in great profusion during the hot summer 
months, basking on projecting rocks, floating logs, or the limbs of trees over¬ 
hanging the water. They were also frequently found along the river shore, 
though rarely more than one at a time, whereas I have seen a dozen or more 
lying in confusion together on perches near the creek. So little fear was felt 
for these, however, that the boys went freely in bathing regardless of the 
many snakes that had dropped in the water at the approach of the bathers. 

The swamp moccasin rarely reaches a length of more than two feet, while 
the Northern species not infrequently attain a growth of four feet. 










exceeds six feet, though specimens have been captured at least one foot longer. 
The creature, though living in the water and taking its prey therefrom, seems 
to be unable to inflict a poisonous bite while under water. 

Yellow-bellied Sea Snake (.Pelamis bicolor ). This snake in shape resem¬ 
bles the one just noted, but differs in all other respects. Its length is about 
three feet and the coloring is less pleasing. The upper half of the body is 
dirty black, the lower half being of a light green, while the tail, spatulate in 
shape, is spotted with black. It is very numerous along the Australian shores 


180 THE LIVING WORLD. 

The Chittul Sea Snake (Hydrophis cyanocincta ), a venomous reptile, is 
found in the warm waters of the Malay Archipelago, where it is quite common. 
This snake is peculiar in that its body has its perpendicular flat, by which 
formation the creature can swim with greater rapidity than any other water 
species. In color it is olive green on the back, shading to an orange below, 
while across the back are numerous bars of deep black. In length it rarely 


WATER MOCCASIN. 










the living world. 




a " d P arts °f. the Indian Ocean. In this wide dispersion we see a con¬ 

siderable variation in the coloring, while the structure in all remains substan- 
tially identi¬ 
cal. They 
produce their 
3’oung sowell 
developed as 
to need no 
care from the 
parent. 

The Eyed 
Sea Snake 
(Ocuius nat- 
rix ) is an¬ 
other habitant 
of the Archi¬ 
pelago, being 
most common 
in the bays 
of Southwest 
Australia. It 
is very beauti¬ 
fully marked 
with layers 
of dull yellow 
and green, 

spotted with black, somewhat in resemblance of the brook trout, from which color¬ 
ing the name is derived. Its length is not above four feet, and its bite harmless. 

The Coral 
Snake (Tor- 
trix scytale ) 
is found only 
in tropical 
America, 
where it is re¬ 
garded both 
favorably and 
with fear, ac¬ 
cording to lo¬ 
cality. But 
wherever 
found it is en¬ 
tirely harm¬ 
less, as is at¬ 
tested by the 
fact that it is 

yellow-bellied sea snake. often used by 

native women 

as a necklace, though, perhaps, in a spirit of bravado rather than of 









182 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


pride. In coloring it presents a pleasing contrast between black and old 
gold, the two colors being in transverse and alternate rings.. This reptile is 
not only pleasing in its bright covering but is also curious, in that the body 

does not taper 
WI towards the head 

and tail as in all 

other species that 
rank above worms, 
but retains its cyl¬ 
indrical shape, be¬ 
ing blunt at both 
ends. The length 
of this reptile is 

less than three feet 

and its principal 
food is insects, 
slugs, beetles, 
worms and cater¬ 
pillars. 

The Wart 
Snake ( Acko - 
chorde javanicus) 
is most populous 
about the shores 
of Java, and is 
hunted considera¬ 
bly by the natives 
who consider its 
flesh as most pa¬ 
latable. It differs 
from all other 
ophidia in that 
its diet is said 
to be exclusively 

vegetarian, an opinion supported by every investigation made by those 
who have dissected its body. The head is large, spreading out abruptly 
from the neck, after the manner of poisonous serpents, while the tail begins 
sharply at the vent and quickly 
terminates in a sharp point. The • 
head is ridged, nostrils very close / *** 
together, and the reptile has a 
habit of inflating its body to 
double the natural size, at which 
time the scales are separated and 
the creature appears to be covered 
with tubercles, from whence the 
name is given. It usually grows 
to a length of five feet, and is 

harmless; but its appearance is grotesquely horrid and even awe inspiring. 



WART SNAKE. 



CORAL SNAKE. 

































THE LIVING WORLD. 


^3 



The Anaconda. The number of snakes whose natural habitat is the 
waters is few, those above described being the most interesting specimens, and 
as we have seen they are generally of an inoffensive nature. Following closely 
upon the water species comes an amphibious reptile which, though innocuous, 
is none the less dreaded, because of its gigantic size and crushing power. It 
is native to 
the equatorial 
regions of 
South Ameri¬ 
ca, and most 
common along 
the Orinoco 
and Amazon 
Rivers. Con¬ 
cerning this 
great reptile 
Sir Robert 
Porter writes: 

“ The ana¬ 
conda is not 


venomous, 
nor is it 
known to in¬ 
jure men; 
however, the 
natives stand 
in great fear 
of it, never 
bathing in 
waters where 
it is known 
to exist. Its 


common 
haunt is in¬ 
variably near 
lakes, swamps 
and rivers; 
likewise close 
to ravines pro¬ 
duced by in¬ 
undations of 
periodical 
rains; hence, 
from its aqua¬ 
tic habits is anaconda. 

the common . . 

appellation, ivater snake , given. Fish, and those animals which repair there 
to drink, are the objects of its prey. The creature lurks watchfully under 
cover of the water, and while an unsuspecting animal is drinking, suddenly 








THE LIVING WORLD. 



makes a dart at the nose, and with a grip of its back-reclining double row of 
teeth, never fails to secure the terrified beast beyond power of escape.” 

When the prey is secured the anaconda does not proceed immediately to 
swallow it, particularly if the prey be of any considerable size, but entwining 
its folds about the helpless victim it crushes every bone in the body, leaving 
the head alone intact. This the reptile performs in no undue haste, but with 
a kind of measured deliberation, after which it slowly uncoils its dreadful folds, 
crawls around the body as if to more perfectly determine the size, at the same 

time frequently 
touching the body 
with its tongue, 
but not as once 
supposed, to de¬ 
posit a slimy sa¬ 
liva on the body 
as a coating to 
facilitate deglu¬ 
tition. It then 
begins the feast 
by swallowing 
the head of the 
prey first, much 
time being re¬ 
quired in getting 
this within the 
reptile’s throat. 
But even when 
once started down 
the oesophagus 
the food disap¬ 
pears slowly and 
by jerks, corres¬ 
ponding to a mus¬ 
cular exertion 
that is imparted 
by twitches. 

in the toies. The anacon- 

da , like a great 

many other snakes, can emit at will an extremely foetid odor, which in former 
times was believed to be a pestilential breath ; but it has since been discovered 
that this evil effluvia is produced by the emission of a liquid secreted in two 
glands that lie near the vent, the power and provision being very similar to 
that of the pole-cat, the crocodile, and the muskrat. 

In color the anaconda is beautifully marked, being of a very rich brown 
with a series of pale yellow rings edged with deep black along the sides, while 
upon the back are two rows of prominent circular black spots that present a 
most pleasing appearance. This reptile occasionally attains a length of eigh¬ 
teen feet and a circumference, about the largest part, of nearly two feet. Like 
others of the boa species, to which it properly belongs, the anaconda is ovi- 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


,185 



parous, depositing its eggs in a dry spot near the margin of a river and incu¬ 
bating them, though for how long a period has not been determined. 

The Boa Constrictor. As previously stated, there are no less than eleven 
different species of the boa , to each of which a local name has been applied, so 
that several designations are given to each, and according to the locality in which 
they are found. The generic name is python , derived from the fabled serpent 
Apollo is said to have slain near Delphi. The term python , however, is applied 
only to the species found in Africa and the East Indies, while boa is used to 
designate those of 
the species inhabit¬ 
ing the American 
tropics. The only 
difference between 
the two is that the 
former are provided 
with teeth in the 
intermaxillary bone, 
while the latter have 
the teeth confined to 
the jaws proper. 

This difference is, 
however, so very 
small that they may 
very properly be 
classed as members of 
the same species. 

Recognizing the local 
names as the best 
means for distin¬ 
guishing the several 
species I will de¬ 
scribe them under 
their respective appel¬ 
lations. 

The Rock Snake 
is found in both 
Africa and India, but 
grows to a greater 
size in the former 
country, where speci¬ 
mens have been killed ringed boa. 

measuring twenty 

feet, while in India it rarely exceeds half that length. Though capable of 
exerting great muscular force, the reptile is very shy, and will submit to the 
mastery of a very small enemy. On one occasion a chicken was introduced 
into the cage of a large rock snake with the view of furnishing the reptile 
with a dinner; but when the serpent advanced to strike, the chicken showed 
fight, and in a few moments was pecking so vigorously at the snake s head 
that it had to be removed to save the reptile’s life. On another occasion, how- 




i86 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


ever, the experiment with one of the African species was more exciting. The 
reptile, measuring something more than fifteen feet, had been fasting for a 
considerable period and was, at the time in question, shedding its skin, and 
half blind in consequence, as snakes invariably are at the moulting season. 
The keeper went to its cage with a fowl in his hand, but when offering the 
prey the snake struck at its intended food, but missing this seized upon the 
keeper’s thumb. In another instant it had flung its dreadful coils about the 
man, and despite his struggles he would have speedily fallen a victim to the 
crushing power of the snake but for the arrival of timely assistance in the 
person of two other keepers, who had to break the serpent’s teeth before 
forcing it to quit its hold. 

The Carpet Snake is a member of the boa species, found in Australia with 
its congener, the diamond boa, the two being very similar. The former, how¬ 
ever, is variable in coloring, while in the latter the markings are of a diamond 
shape, from whence the names are derived. They seldom exceed a dozen feet 
in length, and are little feared by the natives. 

The Ringed Boa is a species somewhat common in Central America, but 
in former years it was extremely numerous owing to the reverence in which 
it was held by the Mexicans, who took every means for its protection. It is 
said that the Aztecs not only worshipped this snake but sacrificed human 
beings to propitiate its anger or to secure its supposed divine influence. 
This superstition no doubt grew out of the power which this truly enormous 
species possessed, and the insufficient weapons of the people to contend with 
it. Fear, therefore, prompted the Aztecs to propitiate it, in which effort priests 
were appointed to administer to its comforts, and in performing these duties 
some of the bolder succeeded in taming certain of the snakes, thereby gaining 
to themselves the reputation of possessing supernatural powers. 

The ringed boa frequently attains a length of fifteen feet, and to its 
naturally great power of compression it multiplies its strength by seizing 
such prey as comes within reach and winding its coils one over another about 
it. Other species coil spirally about their victims and even in this wise are 
able to crush the ribs of an ox; what, therefore, must be the muscular force 
of a gigantic snake that re-enforces its strength by throwing coil around coil 
to double and treble its muscular power ? To contend successfully with the 
ringed boa , it is only necessary to strike the creature a heavy blow on the 
tail, or better still, cut off a part of the extremity, when the reptile becomes 
almost powerless. Its colorings are not always the same, changing somewhat 
with the seasons, but are generally of a deep brown, or chocolate, with a 
series of circular spots of a yet darker color along the back and sides. 
The head is distinguished by having five dark streaks on the top and sides, 
extending down to the angle of the mouth. While all members of the boa 
family are provided with the rudiments of posterior legs, cropping out from 
beneath the skin in the form of tubercles, called spurs, the ringed boa has them 
more prominent, and in the male they are more conspicuous than in the female. 

The Dog-Headed Boa is somewhat larger than the species just described, 
and makes its haunts among other giant reptiles amid the Brazilian jungles. 
It is beautifully marked upon a background of brilliant green, and has a fanci¬ 
fully striped head, while to attractive coloring is added a shape which some 
persons think resembles that of a dog, though it is a stretch of the imagination. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


187 



The Boiguacu, or Boa Constrictor proper, the largest and most powerful 
of the several species, is a native of South America and of Java, and though 
by no means common in any part of the world, is most frequently met with 
in forests that are under the equator. Like the ringed boa already described, 
it was once worshipped by a people who w r ere practically defenceless against 
its ravages, and who sought to conciliate its ferocity by reverential attention. 

The boa is handsome in a skin of singular markings and glistening surface. 
The body is covered with a chain of dark and pale white spots alternating, 
the white being oval and the dark compressed at the side by an overlapping 
of white. Im¬ 
mediately after 
shedding, the 
creature is really 
beautiful to be¬ 
hold, but grows 
lustreless towards 
the moulting sea¬ 
son. About the 
eyes is a circle 
of prominent 
scales which are 
evidently de¬ 
signed as a pro¬ 
tection to the or¬ 
gans of sight, 
enabling it to 
dart the head 
among brush or 
t h o r ns without 
fear of injury to 
the eyes. 

The boa is 
not often found 
exceeding twenty 
feet in length, 
though we have 
incontestable evi¬ 
dence of their 
occasionally 
reaching thirty, 
and even thirty- 
five feet. Con¬ 
cerning the process of swallowing prey 

inter .‘t n L 1 fs in fel7r a %%Tefe e r S: those localities which border on . some quiet 
pool where the? lie in wait, either suspended from an overhanging limb, or 
hid in the luxurious vegetation of the ground or possibly partly submerged 
in the water, waiting the arrival of some small animal, which, as it is about 
to drink, the reptile seizes by the snout, and after wrapping several coils of 


DOG-HEADED boa (Xiphosoma caniutn ). 

in which respect the boa is most 




i88 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



its body about it, strangles it. Finally having crushed the larger bones, the 
process of deglutition is begun, which may last for several hours; the head 
invariably being the first to pass into the gullet, the body following. As the 
teeth all point inwards, and the jaws are successively and alternately pushed 
forward and drawn back, the prey, if not too large, is thus of necessity 
drawn into the mouth. The reptile may, however, find that its food is not 
suitable, or it may need to take breath, and though the prey has passed some 
way down the oesophagus, it is not unfrequently disgorged, making its appear¬ 
ance as a most frightfully contorted mass, covered with mucus from the ali¬ 
mentary tract; its slimy appearance having undoubtedly given rise to the 
false notion that the animal covers its prey, previous to deglutition, with saliva. 
For some time after the reptile has taken a large meal, it is, either from 

fatigue or from the 
effects of so loading 
its stomach, ex¬ 
tremely lazy and 
inactive, being not 
infrequently quite 
indifferent to what 
may be going on 
about it. The in¬ 
activity of menag¬ 
erie specimens, how¬ 
ever, is due to the 
enfeebling effect of 
a cold climate, rather 
than torpor result¬ 
ing from overfeed¬ 
ing, or gentleness from kind treatment. 
It is in their native forests that these 
forms must be studied to be admired. 
Not only are the caged animals inactive, 
but the purple bloom, so characteristic 
of the healthy animal, is invariably 
defective or lost; the rough treatment 
to which they are subjected, as well as 
a disease of the jaw—caries—rendering 
them indifferent and unhealthy. 

“ It is not an unusual occurrence 
giant boa and rattlesnake. for the female python, which exceeds 

the male in size, to deposit her eggs 
while in confinement and watch over them with the most. zealous care. Ob¬ 
servations have been made which prove that the eggs are actually incubated. 
The mother, after arranging them in a convenient pile, coils her body, the 
temperature of which is considerably above the normal, around and over them, 
remaining in this position until the eggs, at the end of about three months, 
are hatched. . We have here among the reptiles an undoubted instance of 
maternal solicitude.” Mr. Kingsley might have added that the python’s solici¬ 
tude is imitated by a great many snakes, as already shown. 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


189 



Goldsmith, to illustrate the crushing power of the boa , relates the fol¬ 
lowing incident: “ There are stories of the boa constrictor destroying even 
the buffalo and the tiger, by crushing them in this manner by the astonishing 
force of its muscles. We shall confine ourselves at present to a well-authenti¬ 
cated account of the voracious appetite of a serpent of this species, which was 
brought from Batavia, in the year 1817, on board a vessel which conveyed 
Lord Amherst and his 
suite to England. This 
serpent was of large di¬ 
mensions, though not of 
the very largest. A living 
goat was placed in his 
cage. He viewed his prey 
for a few seconds, felt it 
with his tongue, and then 
withdrawing his head, 
darted at the throat. But 
the goat, displaying a 
courage worthy of a better 
fate, received the monster 
on his horns. The serpent 
retreated, to return to the 
combat with more deadly 
certainty. He seized the 
goat by the leg, pulled it 
violently down, and twisted 
himself with astonishing 
rapidity round the body, 
throwing his principal 
weight upon the neck. The 
goat was so overpowered 
that he could not even 
struggle for escape. For 
some minutes after his 
victim was dead the serpent 
did not change his posture. 

At length he gradually 
slackened his grasp, and 
having entirely disen¬ 
gaged himself, he prepared 
to swallow the lifeless body. 

Fading it about with his A B0A CRUSHING A tiger. 

tongue, he began to draw . . , 

the head into his throat; but the horns, which were four inches m length, 
rendered the gorging of the head a difficult task. In about two hours the 
whole body had disappeared. During the continuance of this extraordinary 
exertion the appearance of the serpent was truly hideous ; he seemed to 
be suffering strangulation; his cheeks looked as if they were bursting, 
and the horns appeared ready to protrude through the monster s scales. Alter 


190 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



lie had accomplished his task, the boa measured double his ordinary diameter. 
He did not move from his posture for several days, and no irritation could 
rouse him from his torpor.” 

Woods also tells us that there are well-authenticated instances of men 
having been killed and devoured by monster boas, though he omits mention 
of particulars. While it is barely possible that such fatalities may have 
occurred, suspicion may well attach to such reports. It is a well-known fact 
that man has dominion over all creatures, and few there are, however ferocious, 
that will attack him except under provocation, and fewer still will eat man even 
after killing him. Snakes are even more timid than other creatures, the sight 
of a man being sufficient to impart dread in the largest. In addition to this 
I can call to mind no really. authentic account of the death of anyone from the 

attack of a boa, though my 
reading of exploration and life 
in the tropics has been most 
extensive. Still, I cannot 
positively deny what the Rev. 
Dr. Woods declares to be true. 

It is also a matter of very 
grave doubt whether a boa can 
swallow so large an animal as 
a buffalo, unless perchance it 
be a very small calf. The 
j aws of a boa and its power of 
extensibility, are not different 
from other snakes, and cer¬ 
tainly not greater in pro¬ 
portion to size. A snake five 
feet long may swallow a rat, 
but we can hardly believe 
that one this length would 
attempt to swallow a dog, or 
even a cat, yet such a snake 
could as easily swallow a dog 
of ordinary size as a boa six 
times the length could swallow 
an ox. Such capacity 
is most certainly imaginary. I must also regard in like manner the stories 
frequently told of the boa killing and devouring a tiger, though this 
would hardly be so difficult an undertaking as the bolting of a full grown 
buffalo. A tiger could wage desperate resistance, but the vitality of all snakes 
is very great, and if the attack of a boa be made upon an unsuspecting 
animal, as is usually the case, the victim would be within its powerful folds 
almost upon the instant, and serious defence rendered impossible. Yet, for all 
this, I none the less doubt whether a boa ever killed and swallowed a tiger. 

In strange contradiction to the above, though with that want of particu¬ 
lars and authority before spoken of which does very much towards discrediting 
the story, is the following which I take from Goldsmith's Animated Nature: 

“In the East Indies they grow also to an enormous size; particularly in the 


PYTHON, ECHIDNA, AND FENNEC ( Megdlotis ). 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


191 



island of Java, where, we are assured that one of them will destroy and de¬ 
vour a buffalo. In a letter, printed in a German Ephemerides, we have an 
account of a combat between an enormous serpent and a buffalo, by a person 
who assures ns that he was himself a spectator. The serpent had, for some 
time, been waiting near the brink of a pool, in expectation of its prey, when a 
buffalo was the first that offered. Having darted upon the affrighted animal, 
it instantly began to wrap it round with its voluminous twistings; and at every 
twist, the bones of the buffalo were heard to crack almost as loud as the report 
of a cannon. It was in vain that the poor animal struggled and bellowed; its 
enormous enemy entwined it too closely to get free; till, at length, all its bones 
being mashed to pieces, like those of a malefactor on the wheel, and the whole 
body reduced to one uniform mass, the serpent untwined its folds to swallow 
its prey at leisure. To prepare for this, and in order to make the body slip 
down the throat more glibly, it'was seen to lick the whole body over, and 
thus cover it with its mucus. 

It then began to swallow it at 
that end that offered least resist¬ 
ance, while its length of body 
was dilated to receive its prey, 
and thus took in at once a 
morsel that was three times 
its own thickness. We are as¬ 
sured by travellers, that these 
animals are often found with 
the body of a sta,g in their 
gullet, while the horns, which 
they are unable to swallow, 
keep sticking out of their 
mouths. 

“ Other creatures have a 
choice in their provision; but 
the serpent indiscriminately 
preys upon all; the buffalo, the 
tiger, and the gazelle. One would BOA and rattlesnake ; comparative size. 

think that the porcupine’s quills , - 

might be sufficient to protect it, but whatever has life serves to appease the 
hunger of these devouring creatures; porcupines with all their quills have fre¬ 
quently been found in their stomachs, when killed and opened; nay, they most 
frequently are seen to devour each other.” 


POISONOUS REPTILES. 

The largest species of snakes just described, while formidable and inspiring 
very great dread, are really much less dangerous than many comparatively 
small yet for this reason more insidious reptiles. Having therefore given the 
characteristics of the former we may now very properly turn to a consideration 
of the latter, which will be found distributed over an extensive area in both the 
old and new worlds, and consequently all the more important to be understood. 

Most dangerous of all ophidians, though not the most considerable in size, 
is an India reptile known by different names, but commonly by that of cobra. 



192 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


Cobra de Capello, or Hooded Snake (Naja tripudians ). This dreaded snake 
has a large range over the East Indies, where it is everywhere regarded with 
the horror of a pestilence, a feeling most natural when we consider that not less 
than 5000 persons annually perish from its bite in the Indian peninsula alone. 
Notwithstanding this dangerous foe, which lurks in jungle, brake, roadway and 
even houses, and the spread of knowledge that has driven out the bats of 
superstition in nearly all parts of the earth, the Buddhists hold the venomous 
creature in reverential respect, and resent any attempt made at its destruction. 

In coloring this reptile differs very materially, according to season and 
locality. More frequently it is of a deep olive on the back, white below, with 
hooded neck on which appear markings somewhat resembling eye-glasses, except 
that the bow is longer. But again it may be brown with black eye-glasses; or 
the body may be a deep brown with no eye-glass mark, or only two white spots 
on the neck; again the reptile appears with black body with a single white spot 
on the neck. Numerous and variable as these markings are they all belong to 
a single species. 

The most peculiar thing at once observable about the cobra is the curious 

dilatable neck, which it 
spreads upon the slight¬ 
est irritation. This- 
power is afforded by 
means of elongated 
ribs which may be 
thrown out or depressed 
at pleasure. When ex¬ 
panded the neck is. 
several times the width 
of the head, by which 
a curved hood is formed, 
on the back of which 
is a most singular deco¬ 
ration already referred 
to as resembling eye-glasses, from which fact it is sometimes called the spec¬ 
tacled snake. 

A STRANGE SUPERSTITION. 



COBRA. DE CAPEEI.O. 


The superstitious Buddhists regard this marking as the imprint of Buddha,, 
and explain it in this wise. They declare that when Buddha became weary with 
the work of creation, he sought repose under the shade of a tree, but the sun 
moving while he thus slept soon poured its rays into his face. A cobra , per¬ 
ceiving the exposure of the god, spread its hood ancj, remained bent over him, 
thus shading his face, until his sleep was finished. Upon waking, Buddha per¬ 
ceived what kind office the serpent had rendered him and thereupon promised 
to repay the cobra with a like kindness. This promise, however, he soon forgot, 
but was reminded of it under curious circumstances. Years afterwards a great 
bird hovered over the world and began devouring the cobras , until the species 
became well-nigh extinct. Thereupon, in a spirit of despair, the cobra that had 
shielded Buddha besought him, and referring to his promise, petitioned the god 
to give protection to his species, which Buddha did by placing the markings upon 
the cobra's hood, thereby frightening the great bird and preventing its further - 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


i93 


attacks. The natives therefore regard the reptile that once received the favor 
of their deity as being too sacred for molestation. 

The cobra's bite is so venomous that very few ever recover, and those so 
fortunate as to survive are left subject to recurring pains of excruciating severity. 
If no immediate antidote is applied or given, the whole system becomes affected, 
the blood seems to congeal, and the body bloats to great proportions until death 
intervenes, which , is usually within three hours. To this dreadfully venomous 
character is added a most wicked disposition, for the cobra will ordinarily attack 
on small provocation, and will almost instantly kill any other species of snake that 
may be confined with it. 

EFFECTS OF MUSIC ON SERPENTS. 

The curious structure, singular markings, deadly character, and wondrous 
superstitions which conspire to lend remarkable interest to the creature, are util¬ 
ized by Hindoo jug¬ 
glers and snake- 
charmers most profit¬ 
ably. It is a strange 
fact, not less difficult 
to understand than 
the accepted science 
of mesmerism, that 
music exerts a fas¬ 
cinating power over 
many creatures, and 
sensibly and power¬ 
fully on the cobra. 

Sometimes, it is 
true, the fangs of 
these performing 
reptiles are drawn, 
but not always, nor 
by any save what we 
may designate as the 
counterfeits, or im¬ 
postors. Those who 
have studied thor- 
oughly the habits and disposition of this snake are able to handle it with 
impunity, and to seemingly make if. dance to their pipings. Thus may be seen 
in every part of India Hindoos going about from place to place with baskets 
filled with cobras. Wherever an audience seems promising the baskets are 
deposited, music of pipe, tambour and drum starts up, at which the snakes 
crawl forth of their own volition, and go writhing among the charmers. 

Concerning the influence of music on serpents, a distinguished authority 

thus writes: „ , , . . 

“The incantation of serpents is one of the most curious and interesting 
facts in Natural History. This wonderful art, which disarms the fury and soothes 
the wrath of the deadliest snake, and renders it obedient to the charmer s voice, 
is not an invention of modern times; for we discover manifest traces of it in 

'3 



INDIA SERPENT CHARMERS. 







194 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



the remotest antiquity. It is asserted, that Orpheus, who probably flourished 
soon after letters were introduced into Greece, knew how to still the hissing of the 
approaching snake, and to extinguish the poison of the creeping serpent. The 
Argonauts are said to have subdued, by the power of song, the terrible dragon 
that guarded the golden fleece; and Ovid ascribes the same effect to the sopo¬ 
rific influence of certain herbs and magic sentences. It was the custom of others 
to fascinate the serpent by touching it with the hand. Of this method Virgil 
takes notice in the seventh book of the iEneid. But it seems to have been the 
general persuasion of the ancients that the principal power of the charmer lay 
in the sweetness of the music. Pliny says, accordingly, that serpents were drawn 
from their lurking places by the power of music. Seneca held the same opinion. 

‘ The wonderful 
effect which music 
produces on the ser¬ 
pent tribes is con¬ 
firmed by the testi¬ 
mony of several re¬ 
spectable moderns. 
Adders swell at the 
sound of a flute, 
raising themselves 
up on the one half 
of their body, turn¬ 
ing themselves 
around,beat ing 
proper time and fol¬ 
lowing the instru¬ 
ment. The head, 
naturally round and 
long like an eel, 
becomes broad and 
flat like a fan. The 
tame serpents, 
many of which the 
Orientals keep in 
their houses, are 
known to leave their 
Egyptian snake charmer. holes in hot weather, 

at the sound of a 

musical instrument, and to run upon the performer. Dr. Shaw had an oppor¬ 
tunity of seeing a number of serpents keep exact time with the dervishes in 
their circulating dances, running over their heads and arms, turning when 
they turned, and stopping when they stopped. 

“The rattlesnake acknowledges the power of music as much as any of 
his family, of which the following instance is a decisive proof. When 
Chateaubriand was in Canada, a snake of this species entered their encamp¬ 
ment; a young Canadian, one of the party who could play on the flute, to 
divert his associates, advanced against the serpent with his new species of 
weapon. On the approach of his enemy, the haughty reptile curled himself 



THE LIVING WORLD. i 95 

into a spiral line, flattened his head, inflated his cheeks, contracted his lips 
displayed his envenomed fangs, and his bloody throat; his double tongue 
glowed like two flames of fire; his eyes were burning coals; his body, swollen 
with rage, rose and fell like the bellows of a forge; his dilated skin assumed a 
dull and scaly appearance, and his tail, which sounded the denunciation of 
death vibrated with so great rapidity as to resemble a light vapor. The 
Canadian now began to play upon his flute; the serpent started with surprise, 
a T d dl " e . w back his head. In proportion as he was struck with the magic 
e ffe ct his eyes lost their fierceness, the oscillations of his tail became slower, 



SERPENT-EATING HOMODRYAS, OR NAJA. 


and the sound which it emitted became weaker, and gradually died away. Less 
perpendicular upon their spiral line, the rings of the fascinated serpent were 
by degrees expanded, and sunk one after another upon the ground in concentric 
circles. The shades of azure green, white, and gold, recovered their brilliancy 
on his quivering skin, and slightly turning his head, he remained motionless 
in the attitude of attention and pleasure. At this moment the Canadian 
advanced a few steps, producing with his flute sweet and simple notes. The 
reptile inclining his variegated neck, opened a passage with his head through 












196 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


the high grass, and began to creep after the musician, stopping when he stopped, 
and beginning to follow him again as soon as he moved forward. In this 
manner he was led out of the camp, attended by a great number of spectators, 
both savages and Europeans, who could scarcely believe their eyes, when they 
beheld this wonderful effect of harmony. The assembly unanimously decreed 
that the serpent which had so highly entertained them, should be permitted to 
escape.”— Natural History of the Bible. 

The Serpent-eating Homodryas [Homodryas elaps) is a species nearly 
allied to the cobra, being almost equally deadly, and possessing a like dis¬ 
tensible neck, though the workings are somewhat different, as will be seen by 
reference to the accompanying engraving. This serpent is peculiar from all 
others in that its sole food seems to be reptiles, of which lizards and snakes, 
whether venomous or otherwise, constitute the principal part. It is industrious 
and courageous in pursuit of its prey, being specially interesting to the observer 
when seeking to make a victim of another snake. At such a time the homo¬ 
dryas erects its head very high and with a dreadful hissing expands the hood, 
following with piercing eye and moving head every motion of its prey. 
At a favorable moment it launches upon and at the same time gives its victim 
a bite, which produces death, from poisoning, within a few moments. The 
swallowing next follows, after which the reptile is lethargic for twelve hours, 
but it does not make a second meal usually for ten days or two weeks after. 
Its bite is equally as fatal as that of the cobra, being sufficient to produce 
death in an elephant within two hours after being bitten. This snake is also 
variable in coloring, some being of an olive hue on the back and a dull orange 
below, while others are a dirty brown with cross bands of white. Like the 
cobra it is oviparous, and has for its enemies certain birds that destroy the 
eggs, and the ichneumon which will not only eat the young, but does not 
hesitate to attack the largest snake. A fight between the ichneumon, gener¬ 
ally called the mongoose, and the cobra, or homodryas , affords a sight memor¬ 
able for the cunning, wariness, celerity of action, and ferocity displayed. The 
serpent, apparently unmindful of the character of its enemy, feels confident of 
its venomous power, and promptly engages the quadruped. The ichneumon, 
however, better advised of the ability of its antagonist, manifests a cunning 
curious to see. It nimbly skips about the snake, constantly inviting an attack 
but always skilfully, and, it appears, luckily, escaping every stroke of what 
must soon be the victim. Sometimes this attack and strategy continues for 
half an hour, but at length the snake, worried by its futile attacks, becomes 
less watchful, and at a favorable moment the ichneumon now leaps high in 
the air and alights with certainty upon its victim, and, seizing the reptile’s 
neck, crushes the vertebrae with a speedily fatal grip of its sharp teeth. The 
homodryas frequently attains a surprising growth, exceeding fifteen feet. 

The Spitting-Snake, or African Cobra, resembles its East India congeners, 
showing a material distinction in only one singular respect, and from which 
the name has been given. Quite as venomous as its Asiatic brother, it is 
somewhat more to be dreaded by reason of its habit of projecting its poison to 
a considerable distance and with almost unerring aim. It is easily provoked, 
and not only attacks viciously but' will pursue its enemy, and when unable to 
bite expels its venom in a small stream very much after the manner of the 
archer fish. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


x 97 


Gordon Cummings, the African hunter, was first to bring this wonderful 
snake to the attention of the civilized world, in the following brief allusion to 
his experience with the reptile: 

“A horrid snake, which Kleinberg had tried to kill with his loading-rod, 
. flew up at my eye and spat poison in jt. I endured great pain all night; the 
next day the eye came all right again.” 

Since this report, which was much ridiculed at the time, the snake has 
come to be well known through specimens brought to England. Its bite is 
deadly, but the poison which it expels by a heavy respiration, and with a slight 
hissing noise, is not fatal unless it should fall upon an abraded surface, so as 
to reach the circulation. 

The spitting snake , also caled Haje , is as variable in coloring as the 


Asiatic co¬ 
bra, and at¬ 
tains about 
the same 
length. Like 
the homo- 
dryas it 
climbs trees 
in quest ot 
birds and 
eggs, and is 
not averse to 
water, which 
it frequently 
enters, but 
is not known 
to eat fish. 

THE RATTLE¬ 
SNAKE. 

Next to 
the cobra 
and its spe¬ 
cies, consid¬ 
ered for the deadly effect of its bite, must come the rattlesnake ot lNlortn America, 
which is known to be one of the most venomous of God’s creatures, certainly 
ranking next to the dangerous reptiles just described. As most of my readers 
know, the name rattlesnake is given to it on account of the curious termina¬ 
tion of the tail, corresponding to dry, horny, hollow rings, loosely joined at 
the edges, which rattle at the least motion. These rings vary m number 
from two or three to as many as two dozen, this being the limit, so far as 
observation shows. It is a popular belief among the Indians that * rattlesnake 
adds a ring to his rattles every time a human being becomes a victim to its 
venom. Others, including a majority of naturalists, believe that these rings are 
an index of the reptile’s life, a ring being added each year. Both of these 
opinions are without proof, for rattlesnakes in captivity have been known to 
add as many as four rings to their rattle in one year, while m others a new 



PRAIRIE rattlesnake {Crotalus durissus). 









198 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


ring was added only once in three years. From this fact we must conclude 
that on some of the species the rings are increased much more frequently 
than on others, just as the beard grows much faster and thicker on some men’s 
faces than on others. 

The purpose of the rattle is difficult to determine, since it has been defin¬ 
itely ascertained that the reptile uses it apparently only to give warning of 
its presence, and not, as once supposed, to allure or fascinate its prey. I have fre¬ 
quently heard the warning sound, springing out of a bunch of grass on the 
prairies, and always associated it with the song of the grasshopper, which it 
much resembles. The tail trembles with such rapidity, when producing the 
sound, that the extremity appears blurred. At such a time the snake will 
always be found lying coiled up with the tail rising perpendicularly out of the 
centre, and the head slightly elevated, ready to attack. Unlike the spitting cobra, 
the rattlesnake is not quick to take offence, but will resist any aggression. It 
sometimes appears so good natured as to allow itself to be handled, as I have 
frequently seen, but never acquired confidence by such sights to attempt a like 
liberty myself. Early in the spring it is much less likely to be resentful, and 
at that season, too, its venom is not nearly so powerful. On the other hand, 
at the approach of fall its anger is easily excited and the poison which it 
secretes is then much more deadly. 

The bite of the rattlesnake is not necessarily fatal if proper remedies are 
at hand, though very much depends on the constitution and general health of 
the person bitten, and on the species and season of the year when the wound 
is inflicted. Persons have been known to die within a few minutes after receiv¬ 
ing the bite, while others have survived, though bitten in an equally vulner¬ 
able part, and not treated for hours afterwards. Whiskey is recommended as a 
sovereign antidote, and certainly possesses much antidotal virtue, but suction 
of the wound and bathing with ammonia may be used with equally good results, 
provided they are employed before the poison has ramified the system, in which 
event, perhaps, whiskey would fail to effect a cure. 

The rattlesnake is said to possess the undefined power of charming such 
prey as birds, rats and even persons, while instances are reported of the rattle¬ 
snake lying coiled at the foot of a large tree and, by fixing its gaze intently 
upon a squirrel high in the branches overhead, luring the poor creature into its 
deadly jaws. Concerning this power of fascination, which in some respects 
appears identical with mesmerism, or what is more properly called hypnotism , 
Woods writes: 

“ Birds, especially, are more sensitive in their nature, and can be fascinated 
in a manner by anyone who chooses to try the experiment. Let any bird be 
taken, laid on its back, and the finger pointed at its eyes. The whole frame 
of the creature will begin to stiffen, the legs will be drawn up, and if the hand 
be gently removed, the bird will be motionless on its back for any length of 
time. I always employ this method of managing my canaries when I give them 
their periodical dressing of insect destroying pQwder. . . . There is another way 
of fascinating the bird, equally simple. Put it on a slate or dark board, draw a 
white chalk line on the board, set the bird longitudinally upon the line, put its 
beak on the white mark, and you may go away for hours, and when you return 
the bird will be found fixed in the same position, there held by some subtle and 
mysterious influence which is as yet unexplained.” 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


199 


The experiments thus reported by Prof. Woods are so singular, while he is 
regarded as such excellent authority, that I am more inclined to believe than 
ever before that snakes may exercise this power of fascinating their prey, though 
my experience has been to the contrary. Still, one man’s experience is insuffi¬ 
cient proof upon which to base a denial. I have frequently seen birds, such as 
the thrush and cat-bird battling heroically with a black snake that had attempted 
to despoil their nests. Yet it is claimed that the black snake can exercise the 
power of fascination, especially over birds, stronger than any other of the snake 
kind. In the cases falling under my observation the birds invariably beat off the 
intruder without themselves falling a prey. 

When the winter season approaches the rattlesnakes retire into some close 
place affording complete protection from the biting frosts. Most commonly they 
seek shelter in a cave, or beneath heavy mosses, or in large hollow logs where 
their hibernation is least likely to be disturbed. Nor is this retirement in iso¬ 
lation, but on the other hand 
they seem to prefer communi¬ 
ties, so that it frequently hap¬ 
pens when their winter haunt is 
discovered hundreds will be found 
lying in a tangle, but with heads 
always pointing outward. 

Rattlesnakes are peculiar to 
North America, where no less 
than eighteen species are found, 
some of which I will now de¬ 
scribe : 

The Diamond Rattle- 
snake, so called from the diamond¬ 
shaped markings of white over 
a dusky brown background, is 
usually found in marshy places, 
where it subsists off frogs, slugs, 
the young of muskrats, birds or any small creature that comes within its way. 
Concerning this reptile Holbrook says: “A more disgusting or terrific animal 
cannot be imagined than this ; its dusky color, bloated body, and sinister eyes 
of a sparkling gray and yellow, with the projecting orbital plates, combine to 
form an expression of sullen ferocity unsurpassed in the brute creation. 

The Banded Rattlesnake has its range from Maine to Texas, being 
once very populous in the East, but now rarely seen east of the Mississippi. 
In Texas it is still frequently met with, but the advance of civilization is 
rapidly diminishing their number. Rattlesnakes have their worst foe m the 
hog, which tramples it with impunity and feasts off the remains. This species 
prefers dry places, and its favorite food is rats, mice, frogs, young rabbits and 
ground squirrels. 

The Horned Rattlesnake takes its. name from the fact that its horrid 
head is rendered yet more terrible by being surmounted by a pair of horns 
rising about one-half inch above the cranium, m which respect it very much 
resembles the horned viper. Its habitat is the desert regions of Arizona, 
Mexico and Southern California. It is a very sluggish reptile and moves 



DIAMOND RATTLESNAKE. 


200 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


laterally instead of directly forward as do others of its genus. Its principal 
food is insects and sand lizards. 

The Prairie Rattlesnake is still fairly plentiful along the Missouri and 
its tributaries, but its favorite haunt is in the Rocky Mountains. They 
spend the hot season amid ravines or canons, being specially fond of willows, 
since among such growth they are chiefly found. When the fall approaches 
they seek some inviting hole, and very often in this search they take up their 
abode in the holes of prairie-dogs. From this well-known fact has come the 
belief that the rattlesnake , owl and prairie-dog have some natural affinity for 
each other, and that the three live in harmony like a happy family. The snake 
is an intruder into the home of the prairie-dog, but is too powerful an adver¬ 
sary to be expelled. But he crawls into his winter quarters at a time when 
the season of fasting is at hand, and when partial stupefaction from cold 
destroys his spirit so that he cannot be provoked into an attack unless first 
warmed into action. The owl, however, is a violator of the prairie-dog’s house, 
since he does not consider the hospitality of the host, but visits the ground¬ 
ling with sinister motives, no less than an intent to make a meal off the young 

members of the rodent’s family. 
Thus two very diverse purposes 
bring the rattlesnake and the prai¬ 
rie-dog together. 

The Massassauga Rattlesnake 
is more distinctively a prairie dweller 
than the one just described, for he 
never leaves the prairie at any sea¬ 
son, and this adaptation enables him 
to abstain from water for a very 
long time. Of the species mentioned, 
none grow to exceed six feet in 
length, but the massassauga has 
been frequently seen fully eight feet 
long. Being the largest of the Cro - 
talus species, its poison is most virulent, but the extreme sluggishness of the 
creature renders it little likely to do injury to a human being, who is sure to 
receive ample warning of its presence by a loud rattling. Extremely poisonous 
as this reptile is, it responds to kind and careful treatment, and in a mea¬ 
sure may become domesticated. I have a friend who, while living for a time 
in central Nebraska, captured a massassauga rattler , and as he had a great 
love for pets of any kind, in his lonely condition he resolved to see what 
effect careful attention to its wants would produce. Accordingly he secured 
the snake and deposited it in one corner of his rude cabin, fenced off, so to 
speak, by some boxing, so as to prevent it from escaping, or doing him 
harm. Every day he watched it attentively, introduced every kind of food, 
and talked to the reptile as he would, to a human being. The snake at first 
resented all such advances, but gradually came to regard his master with 
more kindly concern, and at length would take such food as it had a liking 
for directly it was offered. By gradual approaches he finally secured an 
amiable recognition from his singular and deadly pet. A winter thus passed, 
the snake being kept during the time in comfortably warm quarters, and when 



MASSASSAUGA RATTLER (C. COIlfluentuS ). 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


201 



spring, was somewhat advanced he released it from prison to determine what 
effect its freedom might now have. Its attachment, however, was not broken by 
this change, but to his surprise the reptile appeared to prefer his companion¬ 
ship and would follow him from place to place like a dog follows his master, and 
would retire to its bed in the corner when night approached. For eighteen months 
this curious relation between man and snake continued, and until an accident 
put an untimely end to the thoroughly domesticated reptile. 

The Ground Rattlesnake ranges along the Atlantic coast from North Caro¬ 
lina southward,, and on the prairies west of the Mississippi, but on account of 
its diminutive size, since it seldom exceeds eighteen inches in length, has received 
little attention from naturalists. But what it may be lacking in size is more than 
compensated for by 
its abundance and 
the fact that its at- 
tacks are made 
without the warn¬ 
ing that is given 
forth by the larger 
species. Being sel¬ 
dom provided with 
more than one rat¬ 
tle and a button, the 
noise it makes is 
scarcely audible, 
and being most 
courageous it is 
liable to be fairly 
stepped on before 
discovery. It is 
probably as ven¬ 
omous, propor¬ 
tionate to size, 
the other spe- 


as 


cies described, 
but its bite is 

rarely attended eer delance. 

with fatal results. 

The several other species not specially described are so nearly like those here 
mentioned that only the most critical examination by a naturalist can discover 
any difference, hence we do not esteem them of sufficient importance to note. 
Like the Indian, the rattlesnake is fast disappearing, the capture of one now any¬ 
where east of the Mississippi being heralded as a great exploit. Their numbers 
are growing rapidly less by reason of the destruction wrought among them by 
hogs, as before stated, as well as by man, so that a few years hence none 
will be left save the few specimens preserved in museums. 

The rattlesnake is viviparous, bringing forth from five to ten young at a 
time. I was once a witness to the birth of seven young rattlesnakes by a mother 
that had been in captivity several months, though I cannot say exactly how many, 
though certainly for six or more. The period of gestation has not been thor- 




202 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


oughly fixed, but is supposed to be one year. The one to which I now refer 
was the property of a physician in the little village where I was born and reared, 
and was of course an object of great curiosity to every one in town,. notwith¬ 
standing the fact that rattlesnakes in that vicinity were then no special rarity. This 
snake had taken no food during its captivity, probably because its. cage was too 
small to permit much motion. The process of giving birth occupied the greater 
part of one day and a night, so that I actually witnessed the birth of only two 
of the seven brought forth. Directly after the young were delivered they crawled 
vigorously about their circumscribed quarters, and I remember that on being 
teased with a stick one of them opened its mouth and assumed an attitude of 
defence, though it did not bite the stick. 

The Fer-de-lance ( Trigonocephalus lanceolatus) is found in lower Mexico 

and thence 
southward t o 
Brazil, where it 
is very numer¬ 
ous, and annu¬ 
ally causes the 
death of more 
laborers on 
plant ations 
than any other 
reptile. Its 
venom is proba¬ 
bly no more 
powerful than 
that secreted by 
the rattlesnake, 
but being very 
much greater 
in size, it in¬ 
jects into a 
wound three 
times the 
amount of vi¬ 
rus that is de¬ 
posited by the rattlesnake, hence its power for mischief is doubly or trebly 
great. Added to its intense venom is a most aggressive disposition, and 
making its attacks without warning, no one may escape its malignancy who comes 
within its path. The fer-de-lance also uses its venom to stupefy its prey, as it 
invariably kills the rats and other rodents upon which it feeds by biting before 
swallowing. It is a voracious feeder and somewhat compensates for its deadly 
ravages by the great number of rats it destroys. 

The Copperhead (Anczstrodon contortrix ) is another deadly habitant of 
North America, being found everywhere in the eastern half of the United States. 
The name by which it is best known has been given on account of its bronze- 
colored head; and dull orange hue on the body, alternating in blotches of bronze 
and dirty white. It is very venomous, though its bite is not so dangerous as 
the rattlesnake. It is frequently found under sidewalks in small villages, hav- 





THE LIVING WORLD. 


203 


ing a liking for the habitations of man. It is also often met with roaming 
through gardens in quest of frogs, mice and insects. Though cowardly in dis¬ 
position, being prompt to retreat from any aggressor, it is also most subtle, 
and will steal upon and bite an unsuspecting person, provided it is near its 
hole. The copperhead hibernates, after the manner of rattlesnakes and Euro¬ 
pean vipers, in communities of various sizes from a dozen to several hundreds, 
though their growing scarcity probably prevents the gathering together of so 
many of the latter number now. In length they never, I believe, or certainly 
very rarely, exceed four feet. 

VIPERS. 




The term adder and viper is used interchangeably between Europe and 
America, the former being American and the 
latter English, but they are both applied to 
the same species. In this country, however, 
there is but a single species, known as the 
cotton-mouth adder , and even this is more 
commonly called the swamp moccasin, though 
we often hear persons, ill-informed, speak of 
spreading adders , and applying the term to 
harmless snakes. The viper , however, is 
common in several parts of the Old World, 
many species being recognized, all of which 
are venomous, though their bite is seldom common viper. 

attended with fatal results. 

The Common Viper ( Pelias veras) is the only poisonous reptile known 
to inhabit England, where it is found in considerable numbers, frequently in 
Scotland, though it is never met with in Ireland. Since the Scotch people 
began the extensive raising of sheep vipers have become much less common, as 

sheep are most destructive to 
creeping reptiles, killingthem, 
as the deer do, with their 
sharp feet. Its haunts are 
in heaths, dry woods, or the 
banks of small streams, where 
it feeds off frogs, shrews and 
birds. The color is somewhat 

variable, at one time appear¬ 

ing of a pale green, and again 
brown, jrellow, brick-red, or 
even black. It is viviparous (from whence the name viper), usually bringing 

forth ten or twelve young at a birth. These are at once extremely active 

as well as pugnacious, and will bite viciously within a few moments after being 
brought into the world. 

It is now a well-established fact that the mother viper gives protection 
to her young by receiving them into her month, and possibly into the gullet, 
dissection of the reptile having shown a receptacle like an elongated sac lying 
along and being an extensible part of the gullet, which can hardly have any 
other use than to provide a retreat for the young. Concerning the breeding 
of these reptiles Goldsmith thus writes: 







204 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


“ The kindness of Providence seems exerted, not only in diminishing the 
speed, but also the fertility of this dangerous creature. They copulate in May, 
and are supposed to be about three months before they bring forth, and have 
seldom above eleven eggs at a time. These are of the size of a blackbird’s 
egg, and chained together in the womb like a string of beads. Each egg con¬ 
tains from one to four young ones; so that the whole of a brood may amount 
to about twenty or thirty. They continue in the womb till they come to such 
perfection as to be able to burst from their shell; and they are said by their 
own efforts to creep from their confinement into the open air, where they con¬ 
tinue for several days without taking any food whatsoever. ‘ We have been 
assured,’ says Mr. Pennant, ‘ by intelligent people, of the truth of a fact, that 
the young of the viper , when terrified, will run down the throat of the 
parent and seek shelter in its belly, in the same manner as the young of the 
opossum retire into the ventral pouch of the old ones. From this,’ continues 
he, ‘ some have imagined that the viper is so unnatural as to devour its own 
3'-oung; but this deserves no credit, as these animals live upon frogs, toads, 
lizards, and young birds, which they often swallow whole, though the morsel 
is often three times as thick as their own body.’ 

“ It does not always confine its voracity within the limits of its powers 
of deglutition; for I have in • my possession a specimen of a small viper 

which was taken on Poole Heath 
in Dorsetshire, in a dying state, 
in the act of swallowing a mouse 
which was too large for it, the 
skin of the neck being so dis¬ 
tended as to have burst in sev¬ 
eral places. . 

“ The viper , like other rep- 
tilia, seeks a secret and secure 
place in which to hibernate dur¬ 
ing the cold months of the year. Here several are found entwined together, 
and in a very torpid condition; and if at this period a viper be made to 
wound an animal with its poison-fang, no injury is likely to result from it; 
the poison either does not exist at all, or it is inert.” 

The viper is not alone peculiar to England, but may be found distributed 
throughout Europe, and I saw one during my travels in Siberia a few miles 
west of Lake Baikal, by which, I conclude, the species described are scattered 
over Asia. 

The India Viper, however, of which there are two species, does not greatly 
resemble its European congener. One of these species, the Daboia russelli , 
popularly called by the natives Ticpolonga (spotted snake), is nocturnal in its 
habits, and being very numerous, while exciting no reverential respect, it is 
very much dreaded by the people, and equally so by visiting Europeans who 
have given to it the name Cobra monil , because its venom is regarded as 
being next ’ powerful to that of the cobra. Generally the color of this species 
is brown on the back with three rows of transverse rings edged with white, 
while the sides are marbled or pale yellow. Its usual length is from four to 
five feet. The second species, known as Echis carinata , differs very materially 
from that of the ticpolonga , in that it seldom exceeds two feet in length, and the 



RING-NECKED ADDER. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


205 



bite is not dangerous, though accompanied by great pain, and its structure is 
by no means the same. It is quite common throughout India but never does 
any considerable damage, though it is regarded with much suspicion and not 
a little superstition, some persons claiming that its bite is most virulent, 
“ requiring a double dose of medicine to cure,” whatever that may mean. 

African Puff Adder. This creature, known to scientists as the Vipera 
arietans , is found only in Africa, and usually in the southern part, especially 
abounding in the Kalakari Desert. Captain Drayson, traveller and iiaturalist, 
thus describes this dreadful creature : 

“This formidable looking reptile is more dreaded than any other of the 
numerous poisonous snakes of South Africa, a fact which mainly results from 
its indolent na¬ 
ture. Whilst 
other and more 
active snakes 
will move rapid¬ 
ly away upon 
the approach of 
man, the puff 
adder will fre¬ 
quently lie still, 
either too lazy 
to move, or doz¬ 
ing beneath the 
warm sun of the 
south. This rep¬ 
tile attains a 
length of four 
feet six inches, 
and some speci¬ 
mens may be 
even longer; its 
circumferen ce 
is as much as 
a man’s arm. 

Its whole ap¬ 
pearance is de- . 

cidedly indicative of venom. Its broad, ace-of-clubs shaped head, its thick 
body and suddenly tapered tail and checkered back are all evidences of its 
poisonous nature. It derives its popular name from a practice of puffing out 
or swelling 'its body when irritated. 

“An infuriated puff adder presents a very unprepossessing appearance. I 
once saw a female of this species in a most excited state. She had been disturbed 
in her retreat, under an old stump, by some Kaffirs, who were widening the high 
road through the Berea bush at Natal. She had several young ones with her 
and showed fight immediately she was discovered. The Kaffirs were determined 
to kill the whole family, but were fearful of approaching her. Happening to 
pass at the time of the discovery, I organized a ring, and procuring some^large 
stones, directed the Kaffirs to open fire. 


AFRICAN PUFF ADDER. 


After a few moments the excited lady 








206 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


was killed and her body buried in a retired locality, lest some barefooted Kaffir 
might tread upon her head and thus meet his death.” 

The puff adder is most generally found imbedded in the sand with his cruel 
head projecting only a few inches, apparently watching for an unwary passer-by, 
be it man or beast. In such a position it presents a truly appalling appearance, 
more frightful indeed than are our conceptions of a demon. Not only is its bite 

fatal to man, but horses, or cattle die 
within a few hours after inoculation with 
its poison. Venomous as is this ser¬ 
pent, it speedily succumbs to nicotine 
poison. This fact is taken advantage of 
by the Kaffirs, who frequently kill the 
reptile by spitting tobacco juice into its 
opened mouth, or by irritating or inducing 
it to bite a stick that has first been 
smeared with the pasty nicotine that col¬ 
lects in the stem of a pipe smoked for a 
long time without cleaning. 

The poison of the puff adder is used 
by the Kaffirs in which to steep their arrows to make them more deadly, first 
covering the arrow point with a glutinous substance to make the poison adhere. 
The Kaffirs also drink the poison in order, as they believe, to render them¬ 
selves proof against all venom¬ 
ous creatures. 

The color of the puff 
adder is brown on the back, 
checkered with dirty black 
and white, and from the neck 
runs a dark red band up and 
over the centre of the head. 

Other species of the viper 
found in Africa are the River 
Jack (Clotho nasicornis ), and 
the Berg Viper (clotho atro- 
pos), both of which are very 
dangerous. The former pos¬ 
sesses the curious feature of 
a horn on the nose, or what 
appears at first sight as such. 

This formation, however, is 
not horn, but is due to the 
development of long scales 
that rise up and project over 
the point of the nose, a feature found only in the male. Its color is deep 
black, flecked with oval spots of white along the back. The latter, or berg 
viper , is found, as its name implies, chiefly among the hills, though it often 
wanders into the plains, and very frequently into houses, especially on the 
approach of colder weather. Its length is rarely so great as two feet, and 
though in appearance it is most repulsive it is slow to anger and the bite 



HORNED VIPER CHARMING A JERBOA. 





THE LIVING WORLD. 207 

less dangerous than that of the puff adder. It is commonly of an olive hue 
v'lth decorations of dark oblong spots running along the sides in four rows! 

™“f horned Adder ( clotho cornuta ), often called cerastes , though improperly 
is another of the formidable reptiles of South Africa which, though gracefully 
mottled on the back presents a horrid appearance by reason of its thick, short 
head, from which project two sharp horns, rising directly above the eyes The 
fangs are very long and when erected and mouth opened to its fullest capacity 
the points almost impinge upon the lower jaw. This prevents the reptile from 
biting anything save that it be small, or sharp-edged. This species is known 
to science as Actractospis irregularis . The viper a cerastes (horned viper) is very 
simikr m size and appearance to the actractospis , but its habitat is Northern 
Africa, Arabia and Syria, and its power for evil much greater. It is supposed 
by many that the cerastes was the asp spoken of in history as the reptile used 
b y Cleopatra r 

to cure the hurt 
of her wound¬ 
ed ambition. 

It is natural 
that many su- 
pers titions 
should attach 
to this curious 
creature, es¬ 
pecially by the 
oriental and 
ignorant mind 
that perpetual¬ 
ly revels in the 
fanciful. The 
people of 
Egypt and 
other northern 
countries of 
Africa believe 
that within the 
two horns of 
this reptile re¬ 
side most potent virtues ; in one is the store of poison to which is ascribed 
a marvellous potency, while the other, when pounded into a powder and laid 
upon the eye-lids, enables one to see spread before him all the accumulated 
riches of earth, although the possession of this wealth is not vouchsafed the 
experimenter. 

The cerastes is found chiefly in the hottest deserts, where it has a habit 
of lying concealed in the sand with its wicked head protruding on the lookout 
for prey. -But though it is vigilant and voracious it can endure an extended 
fast. Bruce kept two in a glass jar for two years, during which they partook 
of no food yet remained active throughout the whole time. 

The cerastes is of a pale dusky white on the back, with numerous small 
brown spots over the body. Its length is hardly more than two feet. 









208 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


The Asp (Vipera aspis ) is found nearly everywhere throughout Europe,, 
but is most plentiful in Sweden, and the whole of Scandinavia. Its length is 
not greater than that of the cerastes, but its bite is more dangerous, and not 
a few persons fall victims to its venom every year. However, the venom of this 
creature is not greatly to be dreaded except during the warm season, when, for 
reasons not clearly understood, the poison distilled by all serpents is most 
dangerous. But it is more noticeably so in the asp , and its fierceness is also 
much increased by thunder-storms, swift-flying clouds, or severe electrical dis¬ 
turbances. 

The color of the creature is olive-brown, decorated with four rows of black 
spots, but sometimes the markings are different, showing a double chain of 
coalescing black spots running along the spine, very much like those on the 
common viper. 

HARMLESS SNAKES. 

Having treated a number of the most noted, oecause most dangerous, ser¬ 
pents of the Old World and the New, we will return to a consideration of a 
few of the species inhabiting North America that are considerable in size, often 
met with, but fortunately harmless, except to eggs, poultry and the small prey 
upon which they subsist. 

The Spreading Adder (.Heterodon platyrhynchus ) is found in nearly all 
parts of the Middle and Eastern States, where it grows to a length of five feet. 
Its appearance is forbidding, which is very much increased by a habit it has, 
upon being irritated, of spreading its head and body and opening its jaws in 
a most defiant way. I remember when a boy, while hunting squirrels in the 
woods about my home, I discovered twq of these snakes which, without danger, 
I captured, and, holding them by the tail, carried the reptiles into town and to 
a physician who was offering a reward of several marbles for each live snake 
brought to him. When I entered a drug store where the doctor was loafing 
every one beat a precipitate retreat, believing that the snakes I carried were of 
the most venomous character, an opinion which is yet generally shared, not¬ 
withstanding its fallacy. 

The Glass Snake is also a harmless creature, about which many stories 
are told that belong to works of fiction rather than to a Natural History, ex¬ 
cept to expose their falsity. That such a creature does exist, capable of de¬ 
taching its tail at will, like the slow, or blind worm of England, is perhaps 
well established, but this curious power has given rise to such fables as repre¬ 
sent the snake being able to reunite the parts thus divested. Whatever evi¬ 
dence may be adduced, it is safe to deny the possibility of the reunion of the 
joints, since such a power would be in opposition to all laws of nature. The 
glass snake, which is of a variable color, changing with each season, is a ground 
creature, about two feet in length, incapable of climbing and slow in all its 
movements. As a means for its protection, therefore, it is endowed with the 
power to snap off its tail, which comprises nearly two-thirds its entire length, 
and leaves this portion to the mercy of its enemy while the body seeks escape 
in the ground or brush. The belief that the joints reunite is no doubt due to 
the fact that the parts thus thrown off are very soon reproduced by natural 
growth, just as in the lobster and other crustaceans the legs or claws, when 
lost, are speedily renewed. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


209 


The Bull Snake (. Pityophis melanoleucus ), more commonly called the cow- 
snake, is also an inhabitant of the Middle States, where it grows to a length 
of more than seven feet. The name is given out of belief that the reptile will 
spring upon a cow and while whipping her with its tail will drain her udder. 
I have often heard people declare that they knew of instances where cows have 
been ridden to death by this reptile, and their bags sucked until nothing but 
blood would be yielded. This is of course an idle fancy, with no more 
foundation than the belief that there is a reptile called hoop-snake that takes 
its tail in its mouth and goes rolling on a straight line like a hoop until 
it strikes the object of its wrath, when it launches forth a horn that is upon 
the head with direful results. A stroke of this horn, it is said, will blast a tree 
or kill any animal. 

The bull snake feeds off frogs, rats, squirrels and birds. It is a good climber, 
and, like the blacksnake, is often 
found in bushes in search of 
birds’ nests. But so timid is 
the nature of this reptile that 
it will retreat before the assaults 
of the birds it attempts to rob, 
especially if the attacking force 
be re-enforced as frequently hap¬ 
pens. The markings of this 
snake are quite handsome, its 
body being covered with gray, 
irregular spots with brown bands 
between. 

The Common Blacksnake 

(Coluber constrictor ) is one of 
the most common snakes in the 
United States, and is found 
everywhere from the British 
possessions to Mexico. It is of 
a lustrous solid black color, and 
a slaty gray underneath. To 
this species belong the blue 
racer and coach whip, which are 
no doubt one and the same. The 
blacksnake is courageous only when he discovers that his presence has excited 
fear, and has been known to pursue a fleeing person, but he is an arrant 
coward in the face of resistance. They grow to a length of six feet and are 
most graceful and active in their movements, being able to crawl at great 
speed. It is usually found in the woods and prefers dry places, though I have 
frequently met them in ravines, but generally on bushes, which it climbs with 
facility in quest of eggs and young birds. 

The King Snake {Coluber rex) is also common to the Western and Mid¬ 
dle States, where it is frequently confounded with the chicken snake, which it 
very much resembles, though its body is much slimmer. This snake derives 
its name from the implacable hostility it manifests to all other of the ophidian 
species. Nor are its attacks confined to the non-venomous, for I once saw a 

14 





210 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


king snake, not above four feet long, pursue a rattlesnake of equal length, 
which it soon caught, and a death struggle ensued. The poisonous reptile 
appeared to be well aware of the power possessed by its antagonist, and tried 
hard to escape, but when overtaken offered the best defence it was capable of 
giving. The king snake was extremely wary and moved from one side of his 
foe to another with wonderful celerity until an opportune moment, when it 
struck the rattler on the neck and there holding fast to his advantage, on the 
next instant entwined itself about his enemy’s body, a hold that was not relin¬ 
quished until the venomous reptile was squeezed to death. 

The king snake never, I believe, exceeds five feet in length, and its 
food is rats, mice, frogs, and birds. Some maintain that it swallows the 

snakes which it kills, but this asser¬ 
tion is lacking of proof. On the con¬ 
trary, in two instances which fell un¬ 
der my observation, when a king snake 
killed its adversary, one of which is 
described above, no attempt was made 
to swallow the carcase. 

The Chicken Snake ( Coluber 
quadrivittatus) , as before stated, re¬ 
sembles the king snake, except that it 
is somewhat thicker of body. The 
coloring of each is a dark olive with 
four longitudinal bands of brown 
sprinkled with white. It is a frequent 
visitor to houses and corn cribs, and 
in the latter place creates great havoc 
among mice and rats. It is charged 
with being a chicken thief, but cer¬ 
tainly does not devour anything larger 
than chicks, and though familiar with 
the reptile for many years, I know 
of no instance where it has molested 
even these. 

The Corn Snake ( Coluber gut- 
tatus) is not a rare reptile in the 
Western States, though seldom seen 
on account of its nocturnal habits. 
It is usually about four feet long and most beautifully colored, the body 
being of a light brown, while along the spine is a row of oblong red spots 
having yellow edges. The belly is of a pearly white. 

The House Snake ( Ophibalus triangulus ), though not nearly as large as 
the corn snake, bears a striking resemblance to it in color, the markings being 
very similar though somewhat brighter. I have never seen a specimen that 
measured above two feet, though some naturalists give its length as four feet, 
of which I am doubtful. It prefers the dwelling places of man, and seems 
anxious to establish amicable relations with housewives over whose crocks of 
milk it exercises a zealous care, skimming off the cream whenever opportunity 
offers. At least this habit is charged to it though I have never seen any proof 



A SNAKE EATING BRAZILIAN. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


211 


of the assertion, and have come to doubt that it has any liking for milk. This 
little reptile does certainly catch rats and mice, so that its presence in the 
kitchens and smoke-houses ought to be encouraged. 

The Ground Snake is another reptile that should receive a better favor 
than is commonly meted out to it. This creature is profusely distributed 
throughout the Western States, especially in prairie districts. Its greatest length 
is perhaps three feet, and the markings are almost too indistinct for description, 
resembling the ground, except that there are four very faint yellowish lines 
traversing the body longitudinally. Its food is entirely field-mice and obnoxious 
insects, such as grubs, grasshoppers, and vegetable-eating beetles. 

Among the other common snakes of America, familiar to nearly all my 
readers, are the garter snake, green snake, bead snake, ribbon snake, chain 
snake, thunder snake and gopher snake. The two latter are of considerable 
size, and both belong to the black snake species. The thunder snake is for¬ 
midable to others of the genus, in which respect its habits are much like those of 
the king snake. The gopher snake sometimes reaches a length of eight, or even 
nine feet, but is extremely timid, making its home very frequently in a gopher’s 
hole, from which fact the name is derived. In many countries, notably among the 
South American Indians, the harmless species of snakes are hunted for the 
flesh and are esteemed great delicacies. 

TORTOISES AND TURTLES. 

The transition from snakes to tortoises seems sudden and unnatural, 
especially in a work of this character, which pretends to the introduction of 
species in the order of their development, or supposed evolution of creation ; 



SKELETON OF CxLYPTODON. 


but to those who have made any study of zoology it will not appear so. 
Tortoises and turtles, under the general classification of reptiles by naturalists, 
are included under the term chelonia , and properly so because of certain iden¬ 
tities chief of which is the similarity that exists in the lung and heart 
organization which has served to distinguish them as cold-blooded creatures, and 
particularly because of their methods of locomotion, which is by creeping, 




212 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


crawling, or jumping. The distinction in these respects between reptiles and 
fishes is not well defined unless the general characteristics be considered, in 
which structure is almost as important as organization or habits. The parti¬ 
cular line of demarcation, however, is found in the fact that fishes breathe 
water, so to speak, while reptiles breathe air direct. To be more explicit, a 
more perfect apparatus for aquatic respiration is seen in fishes; the gills are 
comb-like fringes supported on three or more bony or cartilaginous arches, and 
are composed of myriads of microscopic capillaries, by which the venous blood 
as it flows through them is exposed, in a state of minute sub-division, to 
streams of water. The gills are always covered, and the water which is taken 
in at the mouth escapes by the gill openings at ihe sides, hence the process is 
equivalent to breathing water, by which the blood is aerated, or arterialized. 

While fishes have lungs, they are imperfectly developed, being no more 
than the air-bladder, which is wholly rudimentary In the proteus and siren, 
however, which are described in this work, though under the division of 

reptiles , both gills and 
lungs are present, 
which serve to make 
them a connecting link 
■between fishes and 
reptiles, as difficult of 
classification as is the 
bat. Lungs are rel¬ 
atively largest in rep¬ 
tiles, but the air cells 
are few and large, and 
the blood capillaries 
are exposed to the air 
on only one side. In 
other words, fishes in¬ 
spire only, while rep¬ 
tiles, like birds and 
mammals, breathe 
through the mouth 
and nose. Turtles and tortoises, whose ribs are united together so as to con¬ 
stitute an inflexible shield, are compelled to swallow the air, whereas in other 
vertebrates air is drawn into the lungs by expansion and contraction of the ribs. 

Another distinction between fishes and reptiles is found in the sense of 
touch, which in the former resides in the lips, while in the latter it is most 
positive in the tongue. 

Other points of distinction exist between the orders, but except for the 
student of comparative zoology they are not interesting, and require too much 
classical research to warrant their description here. We will, therefore, proceed 
with a more general consideration of the order and species which properly 
belong under the head of cheIonia, a Greek word meaning tortoise. 

TURTLES OF A PRE-ADAMITE FERIOD. 

Ill the introductory remarks concerning the appearance and development 
of reptilian life, we saw how huge were the monsters that ploughed the prirn- 



EXTINCT PROTOSTEGA RESTORED. 





THE LIVING WORLD. 


213 

eval waters, and what analogy exists between species of our time and the 
monster saurians and ophidians whose fossil remains, or traditionary lore, 
enable us to form a just conception of their size and habits. It must not be 
supposed that the turtles, with which we are so familiar, had any less dis¬ 
tinguished progenitors than the ravenous crocodile, however great may be the 
dissimilarity of disposition between the two species. The persistent search of 
palaeontologists has brought to light many strange things during the past two 
centuries, by whose discoveries it has been shown that the world was one time 
peopled by colossal amphibians and mammals whose appearance, in life, would 
serve to inspire the greatest dread in all mankind even in this day, with all 
the engines of destruction at our command. 

The ancients affirmed that there were turtles whose shells were so large 
as to serve for the covering of a house, a statement which was regarded as 
highly exaggerative until remains of the gigantic glyptodon (carved tooth) and 
protostega were uncovered and subjected to examination, when it was found 
that these creatures were the equals in size of any amphibian that roamed the 
sea, and with a mouth large enough, as Sir John Hunter states, to admit a 
horse and cart. The shell of such an animal might easily suffice to cover a 
house of considerable size, and but for its sluggish movements might have 
been a most formidable creature. So strong was its armament that a ball from 
any modern firearm, short of a cannon, could produce no effect upon it. 

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TORTOISE. 

The most peculiar feature observable in the tortoise is the example it 
affords of having the skeleton on the outside, a characteristic found nowhere 
else save in insects and crustaceans, nor in any of these so perfectly. The tor¬ 
toise, to all purposes, is enclosed within a box, with openings at the sides to 
permit the free exercise of its head, limbs and tail. But the creature is firmly 
attached to this covering, and is unable to remove any part of the back, and 
only very slightly the shield that protects the breast. This shell is of horny 
structure and divisible into two parts, the upper being called the carapax , and 
the lower, or breast-plate, the plastron. The difference between turtle and tor¬ 
toise, in structure, is observable in that the carapax and plastron of the latter 
are inseparable, being a continuous growth, and the ribs are united through¬ 
out, whereas in the turtles the ends of the ribs retain their original width, and 
there is a difference in the composition between the carapax and plastron. 

The tortoises are devoid of teeth but possess an excellent substitute therefor 
in having very sharp, bony-edged jaws enabling them to bite with great effect. 
The neck is generally long and retractile, in some species being of apparently 
disproportionate length and yet capable of being withdrawn entirely within the 
shell and concealed, as well as protected, by the anterior part of the plastron, 
which works upon a hinge and may be opened or closed at the pleasure of the 
animal. 

In muscular strength the tortoise exceeds all other creatures, every bone as 
well as the carapax being designed with the special view of re-enforcing the 
muscles and giving extraordinary strength and vitality to the animal. The brain 
is surprisingly small and does not appear to be absolutely essential to life, if 
we are to believe the statement of the naturalist Redi, who has reported many 
strange experiments made with tortoises. Among these experiments was one to 


214 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


test the vitality of these creatures which he made in the month of November,, 
on the approach of cold weather when these animals begin to prepare for the 
winter by digging a hole in which to hibernate. He accordingly took a land 
tortoise, made a large opening in its skull, and drew out all the brain, washed 
the cavity, so as not to leave the smallest part remaining, and then leaving the 
hole open, set the animal at liberty. Notwithstanding this, the tortoise marched 
away without seeming to have received the smallest injury; only it shut the 
eyes, and never opened them afterwards. Soon after the hole in the skull was 
seen to close; and in three days there was a complete skin covering the wound. 
In this manner the animal lived without a brain for six months, walking about 
unconcernedly, and moving its limbs as before. But the Italian philosopher, 
not satisfied with this experiment, carried it still farther; for he cut off the 
head, and the animal lived twenty-three days after its separation from the body. 
The head also continued to rattle the jaws, like a pair of castanets, for above a. 
quarter of an hour. Notwithstanding the authority, I doubt the statement. 

The tortoise is oviparous, laying from eight to twelve eggs at a time, in a 
hole dug by her powerful claws some six inches deep, and always, I believe, in 
the hard earth and beneath the shade of either bush or trees. Their eggs are 
elliptical in shape and covered with a membrane of a leathery texture that is 
somewhat difficult to rupture, in which several respects they resemble the eggs 
of serpents, crocodiles, and lizards. The turtle, however, lays her eggs in the 
sand, selecting a spot where the sun’s rays are strongest, depending upon the 
sun to hatch them. Their eggs, quite unlike those of the tortoise, are spherical 
and covered with a lime shell which overlies a leathery integument of the same 
texture as that of the tortoise egg, so that the shell may be removed without 
rupturing the egg. No amount of boiling will serve to harden the yolk or 
albumen of either. 

Although there are many points of difference between the tortoise and tur¬ 
tle, both in structure and habit, so marked as to justify the separation of the 
two into distinct divisions, they are classed under one head by all naturalists, 
which classification I will not here depart from, especially as it will save some 
space to consider them together. The differences will appear as we proceed with 
the descriptions. 

The Lettered Tortoise (Emys lutaria ), also called the morass turtle , is a 
large variety, and common in many parts of the world, though most numerous 
in North America. It is more terrapin than tortoise, frequenting, as it does, 
ponds, lakes and marshy places. Its food is small snakes, lizards, frogs and 
worms, and in domestication, to which it is susceptible, will eat several kinds 
of vegetables, though its preference is for animal food. Its color is a dark- 
brown carapax edged with scarlet marks somewhat resembling letters, hence 
the name. 

Chicken Tortoise {Emys reticularia ) is very plentiful in nearly all the 
waters of the United States, though more common in ponds and creeks, where 
numbers may be seen sunning themselves on logs during the summer days. 
It is small in size, very awkward in movement, but extremely wary. When 
in the water it has a habit of stretching up its long neck and sticking the 
nose barely above the surface and floating about in a listless, lazy way, but 
quick to disappear at the sound of a foot-fall. Its flesh is said to be excellent 
and is occasionally sold in the markets, but it is not a popular dish. The 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



shell is dark brown, sprinkled with yellow lines, and the bill is slightly 
hooked. 

Salt Water Terrapin ( Malaclemys ) is a name given to the best known 
variety in the two Americas because of the excellence of its flesh. The head 
is large and covered with a spongy skin, on which account it is sometimes 
called the soft terrapin. Its natural habitat is salt marshes but from which it 
occasionally strays short distances. At the approach of winter it digs a hole 
at the edge of a marsh and retires therein until the warm season returns. 
They are very timid and active either in or out of water, being extremely diffi¬ 
cult to take except when they begin to deposit their eggs, in the early summer 
months, at which time immense numbers are caught and sold in the market. 
Its color is variable, but most generally a dark green oil top, with yellow 
flecks on the edge plates. The head is marked with sprinkled white and 
small black spots, and the 
lower jaw is armed with 
a hooked beak. 

Box Tortoise ( Tes- 
tudo Carolina ) is a very 
appropriate title applied 
to a common variety found 
all over the United States 
east of the Western alkali 
regions. It is peculiar in 
the singular respect of 
being able to shut itself 
entirely within the shell 
by reason of the plastron 
being divided so as to 
work on a hinge both the 
anterior and posterior 
parts. When danger 
threatens, its legs and 
head quickly disappear 

within, the tail curled tightly behind, and no part left exposed. In this con¬ 
dition ’it may be violently used without forcing it to protrude the head or legs. 
Fire laid on the plastron, however, will cause it to seek escape, which cruel 
means is sometimes employed. It is found generally in dry places in the 
woods but often comes into our gardens in search of insects, such as slugs, 
grubs ’ and crickets, and is not averse to taking an egg or even a young chick. 
It is easily tamed and in captivity will eat apples, oranges or nearly any fruit, 
and when these are scarce it is content with meat and bread. 

Though all the tortoise varieties are known to attain great age, the box 
tortoise is specially noted for its longevity, the duration of its life having been 
approximated by the cutting of a date on its shell and releasing it This cus¬ 
tom is quite common and has been so for many score of years so that tortoises 
have been found with dates cut showing as much as seventy-five years to have 

elapsed since the time of the marking. 

Concerning the probable age attained by this animal, Goldsmith says: 
“Tortoises are commonly known to exceed eighty years old; and there was 


GREEK TORTOISE (Testudo grcrca). 



2 l 6 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


one kept in the Archbishop of Canterbury’s garden, at Lambeth, that was 
remembered above a hundred and twenty. It was at last killed by the severity 
of a frost, from which it had not sufficiently defended itself in its winter 
retreat, which was a heap of sand at the bottom of the garden.” 

In Murray's Experimental Researches we also find the following very interest¬ 
ing account, relating, however, to a variety of very large tortoises found in 
Europe: 

“ From a document belonging to the archives of the cathedral, called the 
Bishop’s Barn, it is well ascertained that the tortoise at Peterborough must 
have been about 220 years old. Bishop Marsh’s predecessor in the see of 
Peterborough had remembered it above sixty years, and could recognize ho 
visible change. He was the seventh bishop who had worn the mitre during 
its sojourn there. If I mistake not, its sustenance and abode were provided 
for in this document. Its shell was perforated, in order to attach it to a tree, 
etc., to limit its ravages among the strawberry borders. The animal had its 
antipathies and predilections. It would eat endive, green peas, and even leeks; 
while it positively rejected asparagus, parsley and spinach. 

“All animal food was discarded, nor would it take any liquid, at least 
neither milk nor water, and when it took a leaf that was moist, it would shake 
it to expel the adhering wet. This animal moved with apparent ease, though 
pressed by a weight of eighteen stone (252 pounds)—itself weighing 13^ pounds. 
In cloudy weather it would scoop out a cavity, generally in a southern exposure, 
where it reposed torpid and inactive, until the genial influence of the sun 
roused it from its slumbers. Its sense of smell was so acute that it roused 
from its lethargy if any person approached, even at a distance of twelve feet. 
About the beginning of October, or latter end of September, it began to immure 
itself, and had for that purpose for many years selected a particular angle of 
the garden ; it entered in an inclined plane, excavating the earth in the manner 
of a mole; the depth to which it penetrated varied with the character of the 
approaching season, being from one to two feet, according as the winter was 
mild or severe. It may be added, that for nearly a month prior to this entry- 
into its dormitory, it refused all sustenance whatever. The animal emerged 
about the end of April, and remained for at least a fortnight before it ventured 
on taking any species of food. Its skin was not perceptibly cold; its respira¬ 
tion, entirely effected through the nostrils, was languid. I visited the animal, 
for the last time, on the 9th of June, 1813, during a thunder storm ; it then lay 
under the shelter of a cauliflower, and apparently torpid.” 

There are above twenty varieties of land tortoises found in both hemi¬ 
spheres, all of which are alike so variable in color that they are difficult to 
describe, each being apparently marked differently from his brother. Of these 
several species the following may be mentioned: 

The Wood Tortoise {Chelopus insculpta), found generally in the mountain¬ 
ous region east of the Ohio, is not above six inches in length, and a black 
spot in the centre of each of its scales gives to it a very handsome appearance. 

The Elegant Tortoise ( Pseudemys elegans) is confined to the region lying 
between Illinois and the Rocky Mountains. Its most characteristic markings 
are a blood-red band on each side of the neck, and a yellow under-shell. 

The Speckled Tortoise (C. guttatus) is common to New England, but is 
found as far west as Lake Michigan. The carapax is black, spotted with 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


217 


orange. It is easily domesticated and therefore is frequently made a pet of by 
young ladies who delight in being peculiar. 

The Painted Tortoise ( Chrysemys picta) is a very common variety in the 
Eastern States, where it is sometimes nicknamed mud-turtle . The carapax 
is usually black, with a greenish hue, and the marginal plates dotted with spots 
of bright red. 

The Salt Marsh Terrapin (. Malacoclenemys geographicus) is better known 
as the diamond-back , and best appreciated for its excellent flesh. It is found 
everywhere along the coast from Long 
Island to Texas. I11 the cold season 
it hibernates in the mud, at which 
times its flesh is more highly prized 
and great numbers are taken to mar¬ 
ket, where it sells at a very high 
price. So profitable do tortoise catch¬ 
ers find them that the industry of 
terrapin farming has recently been 
started, which I am told yields a 
splendid return on the capital and 
labor expended. This species is of a dark olive color on the back, with dark 
stripes traversing the plates of the upper and lower shells. 

Yellow-bellied Terrapin ( Pseudemys troostii) is the name of a small species 
found plentifully in both creeks and rivers of the West as far north as St. 
Louis. In color it is of a very dark green, with horn-colored lines and spots 
on the side plates. The plastron is yellow, splotched with black, and under the 
throat are several green stripes. 

The Alligator Terrapin ( Chelydra serpentina ) is also an American species 
found in nearly all parts of the United States. Its preference is for stagnant 

ponds, where the mud is deep and 
of a slimy consistency, into which 
it burrows at the approach of dan¬ 
ger, though it is by no means a 
timid animal. I have often seen 
them, especially the occupants of a 
shallow stream, with backs covered 
thickly with decayed vegetable mat¬ 
ter, so as to resemble moss, as if 
the creature had not moved out of 
one spot for more than a season. 
They are very voracious, and ap- 
sea tortoise. pareutly indifferent as to the kind 

of food offered, grabbing anything 
that is digestible. When the streams or ponds in which it has taken 
abode become dried up, it travels across land any distance in search of 
water and without inconvenience. My observations lead to the belief that its 
instincts for finding water are most unreliable, for I have found them in the 
highway and going over low-lying ground in a direction directly away from 
inviting ponds. While on land his motions are extremely slow and awkward, 
stumbling along with head held erect, unmindful of the obstacles that may lie 




EUROPEAN MARSH turtee ( Testudo lutoria). 






218 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




in his way. Walking also quickly tires him, so that at every rod of his jour¬ 
ney he sits down, with hind legs drawn up and front ones straight, in which 
position he presents a comical aspect. His appearance at best is far from pleas¬ 
ing ; his shell is a dusty black, without markings; his tail is long and knotted, 
legs long and large, terminating with powerful claws. The head is prominently 
large, covered with thick wrinkled skin, neck long and studded with wart-like 

tubercles, while the mouth is armed 
with sharp jaws and hooked beak. 
When irritated the creature gives off a 
penetrating odor resembling musk, 
from which fact, together with its cor¬ 
rugated back and generally saurian 
aspect, the term Alligator terrapin has 
been given. A more appropriate name 
is applied to him in the West, where 
he is universally known as snapping 
turtle , though the snapping turtle proper 
is more common in the swamp regions 
of the tropics. It is a most savage 
snapping turtle. reptile, with jaws powerful enough tO' 

bite off a finger at a single snap. In 
making an attack it is more tenacious of its hold than a bull-dog, for which 
reason it is said not to quit its hold until it thunders. Its vitality is truly 
remarkable, having been known to live for a week with the head wanting. 
Notwithstanding its disgusting appearance and habits, its flesh is highly 
esteemed by some people whose appetites are evidently not very delicate. 

The Snake-Tortoise (Hydromedusa maximiliani) is a species found only 
in the marshes, 
stagnant waters, 
and occasionally 
in streams of 
Australia. Its 
most pro¬ 
nounced charac¬ 
teristic is an ex- 
tremely long 
and snake-like 
neck. The head 
is also of un¬ 
usual length, 
with the eyes, 
which are dis¬ 
proportionately 
large, set almost 

at the nasal ter- the tiger, or snapping turtle of south America. 

minus. When 

the body is hidden from view and the long neck exposed to observation, this 
tortoise has an astonishingly serpentine aspect, which is increased by a habit 
which the animal has of moving the head with arched neck in wonderful simili- 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


219 


tude to a snake. It lives off reptiles and fish, prey which its great speed in 
the water enables it to capture. The color is dark brown, and scales edged 
with a black line. 

The Matamata ( Chelys matamata) is a habitant of South American waters 
under and north of the equator. In appearance it is the most singular species 
of the tortoise tribe. The carapax has the appearance of irregular miniature 
hillocks, with knob projections running round the base; but while this rugged 
formation serves to give it a rather curious aspect, it is in the head and neck 
that the truly hideous characteristic is pronounced. The head is broad and most 
curiously surmounted by ear-like flaps of extremely tough skin, and the snout 
is much prolonged and sharp on the point. The neck is long and broad— 
almost flat—which is an odd form, but to this unusual shape is added the very 
grotesque feature of four rows of rather long fringed membranes, or wattles, 
while two prominently large wattles hang from the throat. What purpose this 
strange formation can subserve is not known, especially since by experiment it 
has been shown that they may be cut off without apparent injury to the animal. 

The matamata attains a length of three feet, to which considerable size is 
added a rather ferocious and voracious disposition. It is an expert swimmer* 
but seldom exercises the faculty, pre¬ 
ferring to lie in concealment under 
drift, or grass by the water’s brink, 
from.which it darts out upon fish, rep¬ 
tile or fowl, that may come near, and 
with the prey returns to its former 
place to devour it. Its flesh is consid¬ 
ered a special delicacy. 

The Soft Shell Tortoise ( Trionyx 
niuticus ), commonly called soft-shell 
turtle , is found in nearly all the run¬ 
ning streams of the United States, arid is especially numerous in the 
Ohio and Mississippi rivers. As the name indicates, the shell is soft, or 

of the consistency of sole-leather when wet. The color of the carapax is 
that of fresh liver, and is frequently spotted with black dots, and at other 
times with dull yellow and pale green. The neck and head are cylindrical, 
terminating with a soft snout, and under the throat are pale yellow stripes 
and dots, though there is a great variation in the coloring. The plastron, 
however, is always of a light flesh color. The neck is retractile, being 
capable of stretching to considerable length or withdrawing until only the 
snout is visible. It is entirely carnivorous, feeding on fish, cray-fish, worms 
or any kind of meat, whether fresh or putrid. Although Woods pronounces 
this species “as one of the strongest and most ferocious of reptiles,” con¬ 
founding it with its South American congener, the macrochelys lacertina , its 
nature is directly the opposite. Though I have been familiar with them all 
my life as a resident on both the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, I never knew 
one to ’attempt any revenge upon its captors. The South American species, 
however, which though larger and almost identical in appearance, is hardly so 
harmless, a captive one having been known to bite a sailor’s finger off. 

The true turtles are peculiar to salt water, differing 111 this respect from 
tortoises save a few varieties described. They are also dissimilar in structure 









220 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


in that instead of the ribs being united throughout the length, as in the 
tortoise, in the turtle the ribs are flat, only a part of which are attached to the 
carapax, the others radiating concentrically. 

The Hawk’s-bill Turtle (Testudo imbricata ) is the best known because 
the most valuable of all the turtle species, since from its shell are produced 
many beautiful and high-priced articles known as tortoise shell. It still exists 
in considerable numbers in the Indian Ocean, and especially on the islands of 
Oceanica, but a merciless pursuit and destruction which every year grows more 
persistent, has caused a perceptible decrease, and in a few years more, like the 
whale and seal, it will no doubt become very scarce. At the present time it 
is most numerous on the shores of New Guinea. A variety of this turtle is 
also found in the Caribbean Sea, but its shell is not so valuable as that taken 
from the East Indies species. 

The hawk?s-bill turtle gets its scientific name from the arrangement of the 
plates, which overlap each other like the tiles on a roof; and it gets its 
common English name from the partial resemblance of its mouth, seen in 

profile, to the bill of a hawk. Its 
head, neck and legs are longer in 
proportion to their thickness than 
those of the other turtles; it is 
more active, swimming with greater 
velocity, and righting itself .when 
turned. Its eggs are eatable, but 
its flesh is not good, and the chief 
value of it to man are the plates 
on its back, which are the true tor¬ 
toise-shell of commerce, and have 
been highly esteemed from the earl¬ 
iest ages. There are thirteen plates 
in the central part, surrounded b}^ 
twenty-five smaller ones. The large central plates are the finest shell, and 
they are often of considerable thickness; but the plates of shell do not 
form the entire case of the animal. The inner or supporting part is bony, 
and may be considered as part of the skeleton. The true skin is between 
the bony substance and the plates of shell. The plates are a production 
of that skin, and in the living state they are covered by an epidermis, 
or scarfskin. The common way of obtaining the plates is to heat the entire 
backpiece of the animal, by fire applied under the hollow on the inside. 
By that means the gelatine of the skin is dissolved, the skin itself swells, 
and the plates are easily detached entire. A turtle of about 300 pounds 
weight will produce about ten or twelve pounds of shell; but in the common 
way of obtaining the shell, the animal, which is otherwise useless in the arts, 
is sacrificed. In the eastern isles, where the hawk?s-bill turtle is very abun¬ 
dant, the Malays, who procure large quantities of shell for the Chinese, pursue 
a different method. They catch the turtle alive, and retain it while they detach 
the central plates, so dexterously as not to lacerate the skin. The helpless 
creature manifests little uneasiness during the operation, and when divested it 
is released and makes at once for the sea where after a lapse of several 
months the plates are reproduced, but these are never considered so valuable. 



SHIELD PLATED, OR HAWK’S BILL TURTLE. 





THE HIVING WORLD. 


221 


When the shell is taken from the animal it is marketable at about five dollars 
per pound, and since the shell of a full grown turtle of this species will 
weigh about eight pounds, and the animal is easily taken, the industry must 
be a very profitable one. The treatment to which the shell is subjected before 
conversion into articles of commerce is to first boil and then steam it, by which 
the shell becomes soft, after which it is put into a press and under heavy 
pressure is compressed into a solid flat block. In this condition it is again 
softened and cut into thin layers, which may be again united, in any thickness 
desired, by compression, and moulded into any shape that is wished. 

The shape of the hawk's bill turtle somewhat resembles a heart, and instead 
of being ridged as in other species, it is flat. The edges are serrated, with 
points directed towards the tail. In color it is a pale yellow marbled with 
brown on top, the plastron being of a very pale yellow hue. Like all other 
turtles, this species deposits its eggs in the sand, which are hatched by the 
sun. Usually the place of deposit is some distance from the shore, and as the 
young have 
no protection 
of shell, their 
bodies being 
yet soft, a 
great major¬ 
ity of those 
hatched out 
are devoured 
by birds while 
trying to 
make their 
way to the green turtee. 

water. But 

for this fact their multiplication is so rapid that they would soon fill the sea. 
The eggs are considered a delicacy, but the flesh of the East Indies species 
is unpalatable, though those taken about the West Indies are highly regarded 
for food. 

The Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas ) ranks next m importance to the 
hawk’s bill and from a gastronomic view it is more valuable. It is found in 
almost incredible numbers, notwithstanding the great number taken every year 
for the market, in all the tropical seas, but its most popular haunts are about 
the Antilles. The name green turtle has been given because of the marine 
hue of its shell which, like the hawk’s bill species, is heart-shaped, and though 
rising sharply to a ridge in the centre, the plates are smooth but not valuable. 
It grows to an enormous size, some specimens being as much as six feet long 
by four broad and weighing eight hundred pounds. The usual size, however, 
is from two hundred to three hundred pounds. Their flesh is so highly prized 
in all civilized countries, and especially in America and England, that ships 
with large crews are regularly engaged in the capture and transportation of 
the live turtles to leading markets on the coast, from which they are shipped 
to all the interior cities, and green turtle soup and steak have therefore become 

common dishes. . ., , -n -i j a r • 

Ascension Island, in the South Atlantic, midway between Brazil and Africa, 











222 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


a volcanic formation but now little more than a waste of sand, is the greatest 
breeding place of green turtles , on which account it is visited by many ships 
and large parties of men, who spend the spring and a part of the summer 
season catching the animals and despoiling their nests. The industry is also 
carried on successfully on the Alligator Islands of the West Indies, Gallipagos 
of the Pacific, the Tortugas off Key West, and the northern shores of Australia, 
all of which places are both dreary and barren. 

Of the breeding habits of these reptiles and their allies, and the methods 
employed for their capture, Audubon says : “ The green turtle approaches the 

shores and enters the bays and inlets early in April, after having spent the 
winter in deep waters. It deposits its eggs in convenient places at two different 
times in May, and once again in June. The first deposit is the largest, and the 
last the least, the total quantity being at an average about two hundred and 
forty. The hawk’s bill deposits also its eggs in two sets, once in July and again 
in August, though it crawls the beaches much earlier as if to look for a safe 
place. The average number of eggs which it lays is three hundred. The log¬ 
gerheads visit the Tortugas in April and lay, from that period until late in June, 
three sets of eggs, each set averaging one hundred and seventy. The trunk 
.turtle, which is sometimes of an enormous size, and which has a pouch like a 
pelican, reaches the shores latest. The shell and flesh are so soft that one may 
push his finger into them, almost as into a lump of butter. This species is the 
least valuable and is seldom eaten. The average number of eggs which it lays 
in a season, in two sets, is three hundred and fifty. 

“ The loggerhead and the trunk turtles are the least cautious in choosing 
J the places in which to deposit their eggs, whereas the two other species select 
the wildest and most secluded spots. The green turtle resorts either to the 
shores of the main, between Cape Sable and Cape Florida, or enters Indian, 
Halifax, and other large rivers or inlets, from which it makes its retreat as 
.speedily as possible, and betakes itself to the open sea. Great numbers, how¬ 
ever, are killed by the turtlers and Indians, as well as by various species of 
-carnivorous animals, as cougars, lynxes, bears, and wolves. The hawk’s bill, 
which is still more wary, and is always the most difficult to surprise, keeps to 
the sea islands. All the species employ nearly the same method in depositing 
their eggs in the sand, and as I have several times observed them in the act, I am 
enabled to present you with a circumstantial account of it. 

“ On first nearing the shores, and mostly on fine calm moonlight nights, 
the turtle raises her head above the water, being still distant thirty or forty 
yards from the beach, looks around her, and attentively examines the objects 
on the shore. Should she observe nothing likely to disturb her intended opera¬ 
tions, she emits a loud hissing sound, by which such of her many enemies as 
are unaccustomed to it are startled, and so are apt to remove to another place, 
although unseen by her. Should she hear any noise, or perceive indications of 
danger, she instantly sinks and goes off to a considerable distance; but should 
-everything be quiet, she advances slowly towards the beach, crawls over it, her 
head raised to the full stretch of her neck; and when she has reached a place 
fitted for her purpose, she gazes all around in silence. Finding ‘all well,’ she 
proceeds to form a hole in the sand, which she effects by removing it from 
under her body with her hind flippers, scooping it out with so much dexterity 
that the sides seldom, if ever, fall in. The sand is raised alternately with each 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


223 


flipper, as with a large ladle, until it has accumulated behind her, when sup¬ 
porting herself with her head and fore part 011 the ground fronting her body, 
she with a spring from each flipper sends the sand around her, scattering it to 
the distance of several feet. I11 this manner the hole is dug to the depth of 
eighteen inches, or sometimes more than two feet. This labor I have seen per- 
. formed in the . short period of nine minutes. The eggs are then dropped one by 
one, and disposed in regular layers, to the number of a hundred and fifty, or 
sometimes nearly two hundred. The whole time spent in this part of the opera¬ 
tion may be about twenty minutes. She now scrapes the loose sand back over 
the eggs, and so levels and smooths the surface that few persons on seeing the 
spot could imagine anything had been done to it. This accomplished to her 
mind, she retreats to the water with all possible dispatch, leaving the hatching 
of the eggs to the heat of the sand. When a turtle, a loggerhead for example, 
is in the act of dropping her eggs, she will not move although one should go 
up to her, or even seat himself on her back, for it seems that at this moment 
she finds it necessary to proceed at all events, and is unable to intermit her 
labor. The moment it is finished, however, off she starts; nor would it then be 
possible for one, unless he were as strong as a Hercules, to turn her over and 
secure her. 

“ To upset a turtle on the shore, one is obliged to fall on his knees, and, 
placing his shoulder behind her forearm, gradually raise her up by pushing 
with great force, and then with a jerk throw her over. Sometimes it requires 
the united strength of several men to accomplish this; and if the turtle should 
be of very great size, as often happens on that coast, even handspikes are em¬ 
ployed. Some turtlers are so daring as to swim up to them while lying asleep 
on the surface of the water, and turn them over in their own element, when, 
however, a boat must be at hand to enable them to secure their prize. Few 
turtles can bite beyond the reach of their forelegs, and few, when once turned 
over, can without assistance regain their natural position; but notwithstanding 
this, their flippers are generally secured by ropes, so as to render their escape 
impossible. 

“The food of the green turtle consists chiefly of marine plants, more espe¬ 
cially the grasswrack (Zostera marina ), which they cut near the roots to procure 
the most tender and succulent parts. Their feeding grounds, as I have elsewhere 
said, are easily discovered by floating masses of these plants on the flats, or 
along the shores to which they resort. The hawk-billed species feeds on sea¬ 
weeds, crabs, various kinds of shell-fish, and fishes; the loggerhead mostly on 
the fish of conch-shells of large size, which they are enabled, by means of their 
powerful beak, to crush to pieces with apparently as much ease as a man cracks 
a walnut. One which was brought 011 board the Marion, and placed near the 
fluke of one of her anchors, made a deep indentation in that hammered piece 
of iron that quite surprised me. The trunk turtle feeds on mollusca, fish, Crus¬ 
tacea, sea urchins, and various marine plants. 

“ All the species move through the water with surprising speed; but the 
green and hawk-billed in particular remind you, by their celerity and the ease 
of their motions, of the progress of a bird in the air. It is therefore no easy 
matter to strike one with a spear, and yet this is often done by an accom¬ 
plished turtler. 

“ Turtles such as I have spoken of are caught m various ways on the coasts 


224 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


of the Floridas, or in estuaries and rivers. Some turtlers are in the habit of 
setting great nets across the entrance of streams, so as to answer the purpose 
either at the flow or at the ebb of the waters. These nets are formed of very 
large meshes, into which the turtles partially enter, when, the more they attempt 
to extricate themselves, the more they get entangled. Others harpoon them in 
the usual manner. 

“ When I was in the Floridas, several turtlers assured me, that any turtle 
taken from the depositing ground, and carried on the deck of a vessel several 
hundred miles, would, if then let loose, certainly be met with at the same spot, 
either immediately after or in the following breeding season. Should this prove 
true, and it certainly may, how much will be enhanced the belief of the student 
in the uniformity and solidity of Nature’s arrangements, when he finds that the 
turtle, like a migratory bird, returns to the same locality, with perhaps a delight 
similar to that experienced by the traveller, who, after visiting distant countries, 
once more returns to the bosom of his cherished family! ” 

The Leather Turtle (Dermatochelys coriacea), often called the Luth , is also 
one of the gigantic habitants of the sea, perhaps the latest of living species, 

but it is seldom met with and there¬ 
fore its habits are little known. The 
species spoken of by Audubon, which 
he calls the trunk turtle , may be the 
luth , as this animal has a carapax 
somewhat resembling the deerskin- 
covered trunks which were in com¬ 
mon use some years ago, on which 
account it has sometimes been called 
the trunk back , but its breeding hab¬ 
its are not so well known as the 
luth or leather turtle. above account would lead us to be¬ 

lieve. Woods emphatically states 
that it does not visit the Tortugas for breeding purposes, and furthermore 
declares that the breeding places of the leather turtle are unknown. 

An English officer, name not given, has furnished an account of the capture 
of a female leather back in the Ye river by some Burmese fisherman. He states 
that she was apprehended on a sandy beach while in the act of depositing her 
eggs, one hundred of which had already been laid. He represents her strength 
as being so great that it required the combined efforts of twelve men to 
arrest and carry her into the village. The eggs were spherical and i $4 inches 
in diameter, and when cooked were very agreeable to the taste, as was also the 
flesh, although it has heretofore been regarded as not only most disagreeable but 
also poisonous. Nearly one thousand eggs, in various stages of development, 
were taken from the body. Her length was six feet two and one-half inches. 

Another large specimen was taken in a mackerel net off Cape Ann, and pur¬ 
chased by the Boston Society of Natural History, the flesh of which was eaten 
by members of the Society, and by them pronounced equal to that of the green 
turtle. Another specimen was taken some time before near the mouth of Boston 
harbor that measured eight feet in length, and weighed nearly one thousand 
pounds. The color of all these specimens was a deep black and glossed, some¬ 
what resembling the back of a porpoise. It differs from others of the turtle 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


225 




family in haying an envelope of skin, or a carapax, as before mentioned, some- 
thing like stiff leather. Along the back are seven prominent ridges having 
slightly serrated 
edges. The jaws 
are powerful and 
notched, to give 
them the cutting 
and tearing power 
of teeth, while both 
upper and lower 
bill are hooked. 

The fore flippers 
are of great size 
and strength as 
compared with 
those of the pos¬ 
terior, in which 
respect the crea¬ 
ture bears some 
analogy to the 
seal. Some few 
have been seen 
that were dark 
brown, flecked with 
spots of yellow on 
the back, and skin 
speckled with dull 
dots of white and 

black. Itsextreme MORASS (B lutaria) 

weight is thought 

to be eighteen hundred pounds, but only a single specimen has been found 
of such great weight. 

The Greek Turtle frequents the coast of Morocco, and is pretty generally 

distributed throughout the Mediterra¬ 
nean. It is also a very large species, 
occasionally reaching a weight of three 
hundred pounds. The shell is irregular 
in shape, with raised scales, and bears 
a resemblance to the carapax of the tor¬ 
toise. Its flesh is considered almost 
equal to that of the green turtle, and 
is sold not only everywhere in Morocco, 
but also in Spain, France, Italy, and all 
the countries of the Levant. The lip 
turtle is fouud in the streams of South 
America. It is rather small in size, and, 
being unpalatable, has nothing to recom¬ 
mend it beyond the curious snout with which it is provided, as shown in the 
accompanying engraving, and from which characteristic the name is derived. 
i5 


lip turtle (Trionyx ferox\ 


INSECT LIFE 


CREATURES THAT FIRST PEOPLED THE FLOWERS AND THE FORESTS. 


HE subsidence of the waters prepared the way for 
reptilian life, as we have seen, and there afterwards 
succeeded other conditions preparatory to new forms 
of life. The growth of forests and flowers was fol¬ 
lowed by the appearance of an infinite number and 
variety of insect life, which exhibit the most mar¬ 
vellous adaptations to the conditions of the animals 
which preceded and were to follow in an unbroken 
ascending series. 

Proceeding from lower to higher, from the deni¬ 
zens of the world in its earliest stages to their 
successors in more modem times (which shows in 
the natural times a progress no less great nor less surprising than in the 
world of human society), we have now reached the highest order of the 
invertebrates. Air, land and water are filled with these wonderful creatures 
-which are too often neglected because of their seeming insignificance or 
because of the unconscious ignorance of man. To the insects the Creator has 
given an infinite variety of form, the most varied coloring, the most diverse 
offices. They offer an accessible and ever-varied field for the study of the 
wonders of creation, and are more closely related to human interests than the 
uninformed would suspect. To the student of Natural History, nature is no 
longer confined to speaking through landscapes, but becomes instinct with the 
most varied, the most marvellous, the most interesting life. Whether as a 
further stimulus to an intelligent appreciation of the wonders of creation, as 
an occupation for time which cannot be used in satisfying the direct needs 
of daily life, or as the means of protecting ourselves against pecuniary 
loss and of adding to our own and to others’ wealth and comfort, the path 
of entomology promises to be a direct road to our goal. Insects have be¬ 
come articles of commerce (as the Spanish fly used medicinally, and the 
beetle used for personal adornment); they protect us from the ravages of 
pests that destroy our crops and gardens (as the potato beetle, the grass¬ 
hopper, the locust); they act as scavengers, and at least decrease the impurity 
of the atmosphere (as the mosquito and the fly); they exhibit many of the 
transformations through which life passes in its progress from a lower to a 
higher form; they exhibit the careful provision made that the tiny being may 
adjust itself to its environment; they inculcate many a lesson, such as that 
taught Bruce by the persistent spider; they have inspired many a well-known 

(226) 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


227 


line of poetry and many a favorite work in prose ; they Have held the interest 
of the most able, intelligent and earnest students of Natural History, such as 
Wallace and Lubbock and Darwin in England; Scudder and Riley in America. 

With the Devonian age and the appearance of trees and vegetation, insects 
first appear, thus emphasizing the wonderful provision for the support of 
animal life and the adaptation of life to its surroundings. The mathematicians 
have proved the impossibility of many coincident accidents, and hence the 
student is forced to recognize the work of an unerring wisdom, such as be¬ 
longs alone to the Creator. 

The Carboniferous age, with its rank plant-life, marshes, decaying trees, 
furnished yet more favorable conditions for insect life, which consequently 
multiplied and flourished increasingly. With succeeding eras insect life con¬ 
tinues with its changed forms of existence and its infinite adaptation to new 
conditions. 

Entomology, or the study of insect life, offers special attractions. In the 
first place there is the infinite variety of species (one hundred thousand of 
these having already been distinguished). Then there are the many and 
curious transformations, beauty of coloring, diversity of form, and finally there 
is their wonderfully developed instinct, their adaptation to the life which they 
are to lead, and the service or disservice to mankind. 

They furnish at once an opportunity, a provocation, and a satisfying 
means for the study of that process of evolution which, far from denying the 
agency of the First Great Cause, recognizes his method of acting rather in the 
initiation of nature’s mysteries than by a continued and unnecessary inter¬ 
ference when the process has once been.set in motion. No student of the won¬ 
derful metamorphosis of insect life can fail to admire more intensely and more 
intelligently God’s wisdom in providing for such adaptation to one’s functions 
and surroundings as shall enable the smallest insect to perfectly fulfil its 
mission. Natural Theology is not antagonistic to doctrinal theology or inspired 
revelation, but rather lends the strongest support to doctrines and to the ethi¬ 
cal teachings of Holy Writ. 

Thus a moment’s reflection will satisfy the reader that not merely to the 
naturalist and the lover of nature, but even to the speculative student of our 
cosmogony, the insects, as subjects of investigation, have the supremest interest 
and importance. But yet again, the practical value of the study can hardly be 
overestimated.* Professor G. V. Riley, the entomologist, is admitted to have 
saved thousands and thousands of dollars to the agricultural, horticultural, flori- 
cultural and arboricultural interests of the United States. Truly, as has been 
said and sung, “knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers,” and the undirected 
experiments of the farmer and gardener are too slow and costly to be accepted 
as a substitute for the exact and useful experience gathered by those whose 
lives and energies have been consecrated to a study of the insects. Think for 
a moment of the ravages of the cotton-worm, and you will realize the actual 
cash value of information at once exact and placed within the reach of the 
unscientific reader. 

Many of the insects have already been made to serve economical needs, 
and thus have resulted in the creation of new branches of commerce with all 
the-distribution of labor, wealth and intelligence which this implies. _ The silk¬ 
worm supplies necessities felt by every household; the cochineal insect sup- 


228 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


plies us with dyes; the bee gathers honey not alone for itself, but even more 
for the pleasure and profit of human beings; so, too, the fertilization of many 
forms of plant-life is dependent upon the agency of the insects, while much 
more efficient than city contracts is the scavenger work done by others of 
these creatures of an hour, who yet spend their brief span of life in the most 
continuous and useful activity, ministering to the wants of man even while 
subserving their own interests. When we shall have learned enough we shall 
be able to protect ourselves against the unconscious depredations of the locusts, 
grasshoppers, Hessian-flies, onion-flies, chinch-bugs, clothes-moths, weevils, 
potato-bugs, grape-vine louse and carpet-beetles. But the first step towards so 
desirable a consummation must be earnest and persistent study of works such 
as is here attempted. 

Not only is the student rewarded by the discovery of beauty so unsus¬ 
pected, so varied, and so exquisite as to pale the more pretentious ostentation 
of human skill, but he finds the most abundant and convincing proofs of an 
adaptation to environment and function in the world’s economy that he feels 

a profound sig¬ 


nificance when, 
in his devotions, 
he repeats “And 
all thy creatures 
praise Thee.” 
Co-ordination of 
structure, form 
and relation to 
the other ele- 
ments of the 
universe are 
brought home as 
a practical 
lesson in God’s 

providence which the most careless cannot but heed. No subject has greater human 
interest than the processes of development, and no field is more fruitful than 
that of entomology. With this brief reminder to the reader of the importance 
of this study, I will proceed to a description of the representative types of 
insect life, in which arrangement, even as to probable succession, is, however, 
impossible. 

The Myriapoda are so named because of their numberless feet; they 
embrace the centipedes , millepeds, and the thousand-legged worms. The mille- 
peds have a round or flattened body, feet close together and inserted in pairs 
upon each segment, except the first three. A comparison with fossil remains 
lends emphasis to the doctrines of natural selection and adaptation to changed 
conditions. The existing species are found almost solely in Illinois. 

The Pamopida mark distinctly the transition stage from the millepeds to 
the chilopoda or centipedes, and have therefore greater interest to the investi¬ 
gator. They pass cleanty lives amidst the dead and fallen leaves. They 
moult some nine times, and at each fresh moulting add a nfew segment and 
another pair of legs. ' Their evolution seems to suggest a link between plant 
and animal life. The centipedes move rapidly and are predatory in their 



harlequin spider. 


CROSS SPIDER 

(Epeira diademata). 


TONGUE WORM 
(Pentastomum denticulatum ). 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


229 


habits. Their poison is secreted at the base of the first pair of legs. The 
species called scolopendra is the one about which so many stories have been 
told, and which render life a constant warfare to the visitor to the parts of the 
country which they infest. With the increasing luxuriance of plant life in 
the more southern parts of the country, animal life, and especially insect life, 
grows infinite in variety and numerousness. .Hence the centipede increases in 
number and virulence as one travels toward the equator. 

The Electric Myriapod (Geophilus electricus ) is a phosphorescent centi¬ 
pede found in Europe. 

The Centipedes have a pair of legs for each segment of the body; their 
antennae are many-jointed, and at the base of the first pair of legs are poison- 
sacs. An Indian species is a foot in length. The bite of the insect is poison¬ 
ous, although not usually fatal to mankind. The centipedes are a great pest 
in warm climates, as they take possession of one’s shoes, bed-covering and 
other unlooked-for hiding-places, and are prepared with an ungrateful surprise 
for the legitimate occupant. Naturally, their ferociousness and dangerousness 



SHELL MITE. 



bas been exaggerated by the tales of the romancers of the nursery and of 
travel; still, without being dangerous to human life, they are apt to cause very 
severe suffering. 

The insect popularly known as the Earwig (although its real name is the 
Earwing , taken front a resemblance in shape to the human ear), is, contrary 
to popular belief, not at all dangerous to the sense of hearing. Its wings are 
large but exceedingly delicate, and during the day are so carefully packed 
away as to conceal their very existence. The earwing , like some other insects, 
is a very devoted mother. The caddis-fly, having no armor for its protection, 
conceals itself from its enemy, the fisher, by surrounding itself with a tube, 
which it makes out of earth and sticks. The saw-fly has on the under side 
of the abdomen a pair of saws, which it uses with great skill and effectiveness. 
It has a short, thick body; long, flat, cutting mandibles, and a double saw 
attached to the ovipositor of the female; the wings are orange. After deposit¬ 
ing its egg, it seals the wood so that its larvae shall not undergo the fate of 
the Prisoner of Chillon. The giant ichneumon-fly replaces the saws by a 
gimlet, and the pine trees suffer from its work as a carpenter. The common 
oak-o-alls (as well as the Dead Sea apples), are the developing eggs of the 
gall-fly, deposited in some part of the tree. The cochineal (coccus cactus ) is a native 


230 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




of Mexico, and furnishes commerce with its most valuable, because brightest, 
carmines and scarlets in which the finest goods are dyed. 

The Shell Mite (.A tax ypsilophorus) is so named from the marking of 
its back, which resembles the Greek letter upsilon. 

The Scorpion. In spite of its variety of color—gray, white, yellow, 

brown, green, black, ash, claret, etc., 
—the scorpion is feared rather than 
admired. Though the scorpion flourishes 
in Italy and France, and is not un¬ 
known in our Southern States, yet it 
much more abounds in Africa, the East, 
and in South America. Its irascibility 
and combativeness are extreme; it is 
like many insects, a cannibal, and is 
perfectly willing to feast without scru¬ 
ple upon its own offspring. In ex¬ 
treme cases it will, like the stoical 
waltz spider. Roman, commit suicide by stinging 

itself to death. 

The body is elongated, the abdomen of six equal segments, forming a 
tail, whose tip is exactly the “ tip ” that the stranger does not care to receive. 
Respiration takes place through four stigmata, or openings, connecting with 
two pairs of pulmonary sacs. The young are developed within the mother, 
and after birth are car¬ 
ried about by her in the 
manner of Indian pap- 
pooses. Some species 
have upon the legs rasps, 
which serve as organs 
for producing sound. 

The poison gland com¬ 
municates with the sting¬ 
er ; the sting, though 
not fatal to man, is ex¬ 
ceedingly dangerous. 

Ammonia applied extern¬ 
ally and internally is the 
most satisfactory remedy. 

The scorpions are ex¬ 
amples of motherly affec¬ 
tion, tenderness and de¬ 
voted care; they take 
special pains to educate 
the young at home. cylindrical spider, natural size. 

The scorpion is the 

land octopus, and the wonderful tales told by Jules Verne and Victor 
Hugo may be transferred to the legendary history of this spider (for spider 
it is). Its appearance is repulsive, impish, devilish. Roaming abroad in 
the darkness, they penetrate everywhere—no pillow too soft to invite them; 







231 



THE LIVING WORLD. 

no shoe too small for them to wear; no dress so coarse as to repel them, 
those who live m the land of the scorpion have to use all precaution, even in 
dressing, lest they disturb this unreasonable and irascible insect, which, thorough 
anarchist that it is, recognizes no individual right to property. The young 
are frequently not content with feasting at the family hearth, but devour 
piecemeal them devoted parent, who thus outdoes the famed pelican. A singular 
species, called Thelyplionus caudatus , is found in Java; it is rat-tailed, and 
breathes through spiracles. 

The Spider. The unwearied patience of the spider is the despair of the 
careful housewife. Like Antaeus, he is thrown to earth only to rise with 
increased strength and determination. They are the most observant of the 
insects, and are always ready to turn to their own advantage any mistaken 
confidence of their prey. Like Argus, they have many eyes with which to 
guard their interests. The loss of a leg is quickly repaired by the growth of 
another. Their web is more ingenious than that made by the shuttle of the weaver, 


GIANT CRAB SPIDER. 

and is made to serve the combined uses of a trap for enemies and a castle for 
the spider . The female lays in a season about one thousand eggs, which, as 
soon as dry, are surrounded by a home-made bag which she fastens to her own 
person. Like the hen, she ceases her care over her young only when they 
have become able to provide for themselves. 

The true spiders (Araneidcz) have the thorax and head united which con¬ 
tain the stomach, the centre of the nervous system, and .the muscles of the 
legs and jaws. The abdomen is occupied by the intestines, the organs of 
respiration, the circulating system, the organs of reproduction, and the mechan¬ 
ism for spinning. The males are ordinarily smaller than the females, and have 
relatively longer legs and smaller abdomen; they are usually darker in color 
and markings. After the eggs have been laid they are easy to examine, as 
they develop equally well in any place, and the application of oil or of alcohol 
renders their shells transparent. With the bursting of the first skin the spider 











232 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


appears, pale, soft, Hairless, and with small claws upon its feet; but when the ex¬ 
uviation is completed it looks like a true spider. The process of moulting is not 
confined to the earlier periods, but extends throughout the life of the spider. 
The outer spinning-organs consist of two-jointed tubes, a large number of which 
are to be found on each spinneret. The hind feet are used to guide the 
threads and to regulate the supply. 

The devices used by the spider are so numerous and so varied as to have 
made it the symbol of persistent cunning. One kind makes for its nest a door 
of earth held together by a web, so as to simulate the firm ground; another 
provides an inside door, which can be used in case of house-breakers. 

The spider commonly seen on the banks of streams is attractive from its 
beauty and engineering skill, as well as from the facility with which it adapts 

itself to all changes 
of locality, climate or 
surroundings. It is 
a silvery drab on the 
head and thorax, 
while in striking 
contrast is the ab¬ 
domen, which is 
black, yellow, or 
brown, and the legs, 
whose color*is orange 
ringed with black or 
brown. Long before 
the idea occurred to 
man did this small 
creature span the 
waters with suspen¬ 
sion bridges. Fast¬ 
ening a thread to 
some support, it 
spins another series 
of threads, which, 
taken up by the wind, 
are finally blown 

across the stream and entangled in some bush or tree. Then the spider , using 
this first strand as a road-way, makes a parallel cord, and afterwards weaves 
with mathematical exactness, and upon the most exact engineering principles, a 
circular, wheel-like trap for its prey. 

The Mason Spider [Mygale) builds in timber or walls. It is a native of 
the tropics. The Mygale nidulans a West Indian creature, digs an oblique 
hole an inch in diameter and three inches in extent. This she lines with 
webbing until it attains the consistency of leather, when she supplies it with 
a door which opens and shuts at the pleasure of the owner. The orange-white 
color of the web shows that this spider is less provincial than our society 
people, for it has anticipated them in house decorations, and has even yet an 
advantage over the skill of the modern house-furnisher. The door is circular 
and of exceptional thickness and strength, and the hinges act automatically in 



BUSH SPIDER- 









THE LIVING WORLD. 


233 


shutting the door. There is no need of weather strips, for this builder, unlike 
the clumsy human carpenter, makes his joints to fit with the greatest accuracy. 
Moreover, the outer side of the door is made in the pattern of a fungus, or a 
lichen, so that the plants themselves would be deceived, and if it lie near the 
surface it is colored so as to resemble the ground in which it is placed. 
Another species select an elevated 
plot of ground so as to secure very 
good drainage and consequent sani¬ 
tation. Digging a gallery of as 
great a depth as two feet, she lines 
this with the softest and most 
attractive silken tapestry. 

The Crooked-Legged Crab 
Spider (Thomisus vatens). This 
is not a true spider, but a crus¬ 
tacean, still in form and predatory 
habits it resembles the spider 
sufficiently to deserve the popular 
name which it has earned. 

The Water Spider (Argyro¬ 
ne ta aquatica) is amphibious, or 
able to live with equal ease and 


MASON SPIDER {M. ccementaria). 

comfort upon either land or water. When 
living in water he encases himself in a bubble 
of air; weaving a silken bag with an opening 
below, he attaches this to a plant; climbing 
upon the outer threads he awaits at the surface 
the coming of a bubble of air, which he 
seizes with his hind feet and bears below for 
the proper ventilation of his dwelling. 

The Bird Spider (Mygale avicularia ) is 
of immense size for an insect and of marked 
muscular power. It is found commonly in 
South America, being abundant in Guiana. It nests in trees, and captures the 
smaller birds, and also lizards or frogs, which it leaps upon after the manner 
of a tiger. There has been some dispute among naturalists respecting the habits 
of this spider in catching birds, but the fact is now well established. Its body 
is dark black and is covered with reddish brown hairs. 









234 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




The Wolf Spider ( Lycosa iniquilina) retains its cocoons attached to its 
spinnerets. Like a wolf, it inhabits a cave which it excavates for itself, and 
thence pounces upon its prey. 

The Mining Spider ( Cteniza fodiens ) bores to the depth of six inches, and 

then constructs its 
dwelling at right angles 
to this tunnel. 

The Cylindrical 
Spider (Gale odes aran- 
oides) is sometimes 
called the waltzing 
spider because its walk 
resembles a Russian 
waltz. 

The Velvet Mite 
Spider (Trombidium 
holosericeum ) is com¬ 
mon in gardens, hot¬ 
houses, or wherever 
plant life is abundant. 
It feeds not upon the 
plants, however, but 
upon the eggs of insects. 
One species of the 
Trombidium is ah effi- 
bird spider. cient ally of man in his 

contest with the grass¬ 
hopper, while another furnishes a valuable dye, which has long been held as 
among the prime and most essential articles of commerce, next, in fact, to the 
cochineal, the coloring matter of which it resembles. 

The Marginated Mite ( Glomeus marginata ) at times looks like a toy 
turbine wheel, on account of the white lines which border the segments of the 
body, and the recurved position in which it holds the tail. 

The Crooked-Legged Crab Spider has a striking resemblance to a crab. 

The Crab Spider proper (Nygate 
avicularid) , also called bird spider , is a 
native of South America, where it grows 
to an extraordinary size, and, though 
not so poisonous as many species, is ex¬ 
tremely formidable for its power to bite 
with serious effects. It is represented 
as occasionally catching birds and young 
chickens, but its more common diet is 
smaller reptiles, such as lizards, slugs, 
etc. In many respects this creature is 
more powerful for evil than the Indian 
scorpion, whose sting is so greatly Indian scorpion. 

dreaded, to which is added an offensive 

habit of hiding in clothing, where it is most likely to give both a sting and surpise. 








THE LIVING WORLD. 


235 


The Water Bear, or Macrobiotics Schultzei , takes its English name 
from its resemblance to the bear. It is a microscopic form, found as a rule 
in the sand, but at times in the water. It has four pairs of legs, each 



terminated by claws; it seems to have no organs for respiration or circulation. 
The species is hermaphroditic ; the engraving illustrates their structure. 

The Wall Spider (Phalangium opilio ) has, in common with the other 
members of the family, four principal vessels as silk repositories, which are 
located, not near the mouth, as in caterpillars, but near the anus. The thread is 
composed of the threadlets pro¬ 
ceeding from five spinnerets, 
and sometimes from six. These 
spinnerets are composed of an 
infinite number of smaller 
tubes, for in this common in¬ 
sect there is recognized the 
truth that man has learned 
but slowly and painfully, that 
a combination of slight strands 
is better able to sustain a 
strain than is a cord whose 
strands are few but large. 

Thus, again, are we taught 
that the highest human wis¬ 
dom consists in coming to 
nature in the mood of a little 



. . r 8. WALL SPIDER. 23. RIBBON-LINKED MILLEPED (Scolopendra 

child—trust we OI the W 1 S- lucasi). 21. MILLEPED. 15. STONE spider ( Drassus lapidx- 
dom of Providence—and ap¬ 
plying our lessons as we learn 
them. Let the reader give a 


lucasi) 

cola). 19. Obisium trombidiorides. 


little time to observing this method of rope- 
makers^and'then^sTud/the habits of the spider and he will speedily be con¬ 
vinced of the lessons yet to be learned from the obedient creatures of the 
insect world, bearing in mind that it requires four millions of the common 






THE LIVING WORLD. 


216 




spider’s threads to equal the bulk of a hair. One can appreciate the resources, 
the industry, and the skill of this insect, so little understood by persons, 
as to realize the lack of honor that is said to attend a prophet in his own 
country. Another advantage which the spider gains from this multiplication of 
threads, is the protection against total loss when a guy-rope breaks. The 
spider shoots out his little silken quills, whose direction he guides by the nice 
sense of touch, which seems to inhere in his hind-legs. After stretching lines 
to make the warp, the house-spider crosses these by a superposed woof, which 
is not interlaced; as the spider uses the ancient English method of employing 
her limbs as weaving rods, its web will be found to have the same lengths as 
its radii. Contrary to popular belief, she does not remain at the centre of her 
web, but quite frequently constructs on the edge of the web what the French 
call a porte-cochere, whence she comes to welcome her guests “with hospitable 
hands to bloody graves,” though not without much affectation of style. 

The Ribbon-Linked Spider ( Scolo 
pendra lucasi) has a body which looks 
like links of ribbons. It is about six 
inches in length, and is found in France 
and in some islands. 

The Milleped ( Jalus terrestris ) is 
the many-footed soldier of German ento¬ 
mology. It has two pairs of legs attached 
to each segment; its thorax and abdomen 
are not separate; it breathes by means 
of spiracles, stigmata, or air-holes; it has 
two pairs of paws. It is found as early 
as the Carboniferous age. It undergoes 
no true metamorphosis, but when passing 
from stage to stage of growth, doubles 
itself up, splits the integument, 
and bursts forth into new life. 

The Obisium trombidiorides is 
a very singular-looking, top-shaped 
creature belonging to the scorpion 
family. 

The Tarantula (Lycosa taran¬ 
tula) a deadly species, is named from the place of its discovery—Tarentum, in 
Italy—but it is uncomfortably frequent in the southern country. It is a mason- 
spider, living in the ground and keeping its front door closed to all intruders. 
Its bite is not, as supposed, fatal, but it is generally very troublesome. It is said 
that if unmolested the tarantula will cross one’s body without attacking the 
person, though its course will be marked by small, irritating red marks. This 
statement, however, only applies to the centipede. The tarantula is as coura¬ 
geous as a sparrow, and when attacking man, will, it is said, aim always at the face. 

The Skin Spider (Demodex folliculorum ) sometimes invades the hair 
follicles and the sebaceous glands of the nose; it is inj urious to hides and 
skins, but harmless to the human being. It uses skins or hides as nests for 
its larvae, and frequently renders them useless for the purpose of commerce. 

The Black Spider (Cltaxypsilophorus) lives in the gills of a fresh-water mussel. 



IO. MINING SPIDER. 12 . WOLF SPIDER. 14. CRAB SPIDER 

(Thomisus ratius ). 4. velvet mite. 22. ( Glomeris 

marginata). 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


237 



26. claw-footed myriapod a. 24. electric myriapoda. 25. ( Scutigera coleoptera). 

13. sharp-eyed spider ( Oxyopes ratnosus). 


The Harlequin Spider ( Salticus scenicus ) uses stratagem. It conceals its 
legs so that its body, having the appearance of a fly, deceives the insects 
which are to become its prey, and upon which it springs when within reach. 

The Garden Spider is the familiar red spider; it weaves 
a delicate web under the surface of leaves, partly for protection 
against enemies, and partly for the luxurious enjoyment of 
their larvae, 
which feed 
upon the 
leaves. 

The Bee¬ 
tle-like Spi¬ 
der {Scutigera 
coleop ter a ) 
has a beetle¬ 
shaped body, 
to which are 
appended its 
long legs. 

The common Wood-tick, which frequently feasts itself upon the blood of 
dogs and cattle, belongs to the spider family. There is a Persian spider which 

attacks man, to whom its bite proves 
very venomous; and a family of 
parasites which fasten themselves 
to bats and beetles, all of the same 
species as the wood-tick. 

The Stone-Dwelling Spider 
(Drassus lapidicola ) lives under 
stones, or at times in silk tubes 
which it attaches to plants. It spins 
a little web across its nest and de¬ 
posits its eggs therein. 

The Cross Myriapod ( Epeira 
diadema) is a prominent member of a 
brightly colored, odd-shaped family, 
which, while lying in wait, assumes 
various deceptive forms, such as that 
of bark, straws, etc. It is named from 
the resemblance of its abdominal orna¬ 
mentation to the diadems of royalty. 

The Tongue Worm (Pentas- 
tomum denticulatum ) is a larva 
found in the tongue and cavities of 
persons and animals. 

The Dragon-Fly ( Libellula :) 
is of interest from its common¬ 
ness, its gay coloring, its ser¬ 
viceableness in the destruction of gnats, mosquitoes, and so forth, 
and from its transformations. It lays its eggs on the surface of water- 


MEMBRACEiE, OR LITTLE DEVILS OF GEODFREY, MAGNI 
FIED. 






THE LIVING WORLD. 


238 

plants, with which it cements a friendship; in each bunch of eggs there is 
upwards of a hundred. The larvae have to forage for their own food, and they 
are able to propel themselves through the water upon the principle of the 
syringe. The underlip is armed at its extremity with a pair of hooks, and is 
darted out at the victim. I11 passing to the pupa stage the larva moults and 
the pupa adds a pair of wings. The pupa in its turn moults, having first 
climbed to the surface, and the Cinderella-like grub is succeeded by the gaily- 
apparelled creature so well known. It is the despot of the insect world. It 
is erroneously suspected of annoying horses, for it is perfectly innocent of any 
such transgression. 

The Little Devils of Geodfrey were named by the entomologist Geodfrey. 
Creatures of a day, these dragon-flies are clothed in colors so brilliant and 
varied as to dim the lustre of gems and jewels. The ingenuity of man in 
producing hues is slight in comparison with the native endowment of these 
insects, who multiply colors until they become indescribable by human language, 
though none the less appreciable by human sense. Then, again, there is an 
evident provision for the necessities of their lives. The mormolycce insects, 

for example, so perfectly resemble 
a leaf in veining and coloring that 
even birds are led astray by the 
deception. 

The Leaf Bug (. Mormoly phyl- 
lodes ) is three inches in length, and is 
to be found in Java. Color, brown, 
except the legs and antennae, 
which are black. It is remark¬ 
able for its crabrshaped back, al¬ 
though it takes its name from its 
frequent resemblance to a leaf. 
It is found under the branches 
of trees and also haunts the tall 
grasses and flowers, the juices of which constitute its principal food. Though 
called a bug, it is really a link between the moth and butterfly since it resembles 
both, and its habits are also imitative of each. 

The Ant-Lion, when in its larval stage, digs a pit perfectly circular, 
using its head and jaws as a shovel, and throwing the sand out so as to 
form a slope about the pit. The slightest disturbance of the sand is sufficient 
reason for the insect to dig out more sand, and thus cause the victim to slip 
down within easy reach, and submit to yielding up its life’s blood. Like the 
crab, it walks backwards.' When it encounters a pebble too heavy to be thrown 
out by its head, it patiently struggles until it has got it upon its back, when 
it carries it away just as a porter would do. It builds for itself a case of 
sand, and lines it with a silken web, preparatory to its metamorphosis into a 
pupa. It finally passes into an ephemera, and closes its life similar to that 
of the dragon-fly. Mv American readers will, perhaps, more readily recognize 
the ant-lion under its common name of doodle bag , and will call to mind their 
boyhood days when among the sand of overshelving rocks they found the 
bug’s shallow basin, and succeeded in luring it from its haunt by calling doodle¬ 
bug, doodle-bug, doodle, doodle, as I have very often done. 



ANTS AT PLAY. 






THE LIVING WORLD. 


239 


The Orthoptera include cockroaches (. Blattidce ), devil-horses {Mantides), 
crickets (Gry Hides), grasshoppers and katydids (Locustides), and the true 
locusts (Acridides). Though the orthoptera undergo various metamorphoses 
and frequently exuviate, there is but little difference between the first and last 
stages of their existence. The orthoptera represent the earlier forms of insect 
life, being found as far back as the “ Devonian period,” as termed by geolo¬ 
gists ; fossil remains abound in Illinois, Colorado, Wyoming and Idaho. The 
blattides (or cockroaches) are familiar to the sense of sight and of smell, and 
their wanton wastefulness does not decrease the disfavor in which they are 
held. Their compressible skins enable them to “ crawl through a very small 
hole,” and though naturally nocturnal in their habits, they seem to have 
learned how not to pass the day in slothfulness. Warmth and dampness are 
favorable to their growth and prosperity, and therefore the kitchens of houses 
are favored resorts. They have become great travellers through infesting 
vessels, and have been very successful in their capacity of stowaways. In 
this way they have become cosmopolitan, and have safely entrenched them- 



1 


6. HUNTING beetle ( Staphylinus erythropterus). 14. snapping beetle ( Agriotis lineatus). 2. leather bug 

(,Carabus coriaceus). 9. burying beetle (Necrophoms vespillo). 8 death simulator (Hisler'unicolor). 
20. grape-vine SUCKER ( Rhynchites alni ). 27. may-beetle (Moles proscarabeus). 25. Cucujus sangui- 

nolenlus. 4. water-beetle (Gyrinus natator). 

selves in all parts of the world. The cockroach carries about its body the 
e gg-case until the young animals are ready to come forth. 

Like the hen, she broods and is very solicitous about her young. The 
cockroach is nearly omnivorous, and hence the difficulty of tempting it with, a 
pleasure of taste which shall be fatal. The German cockroach (Ectobia ger- 
manica) is the one which frequents our houses, infests our bakeries, and de¬ 
stroys our cloth-bound libraries. The oriental cockroach especially frequents 
our sinks. The American cockroach, though frequenting dwellings, prefers a 
life in the sewers and slums. . 

The Mantidae, vulgarly called devil-horses and praying insects, bear a 
resemblance to leaves and twigs, and have received their name from a fancied 
resemblance to soothsayers or devotees; they are carnivorous, and, like the can¬ 
nibals, feast themselves even upon their own kind when slain. They l le m wai t 
for their prey, and will kill butterflies, potato-beetles, caterpillars and grasshoppers. 



240 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



The Phasmidae, (called walking leaves, or walking sticks) is specially 
interesting as illustrating the adaptation of animals to the conditions of their 

life, and have a close 
relation with the viantidce . 

The Ephemeridae, 
or May-Flies, are so- 
called because of the 
momentary duration of 
their existence. Their 
delicacy and grace are 
very striking, and to 
some extent atone for 
their annoyance to one 
who is not engaged in. 
the study of Natural His¬ 
tory. They furnish a 
means of subsistence es¬ 
pecially for fishes; in 
some parts of the world, 
where their number is 
very great, they are con¬ 
verted by the farmer into 
fertilizers. A few species 
are carnivorous, but most 
of the ephemetidce sur¬ 
pass the vegetarian in 
abstinence, as they add 
plants to the articles of 
food interdicted by their 
laws. At first sight it 
would seem a needless 
cruelty for an animal to 
live so short a life, and 
to find his mission in 
furnishing food for fishes. 
But this life is but the 
flashing up of a flame 
before it expires, the fire 
having been long in burn¬ 
ing, for in their prepara¬ 
tory state the ephemeridce 
have lived from ten 
months to three years, so 
migrating locusts (nat. size) {Pachytylus migratorius). that they have had time 

to enjoy the pleasures 

and fulfil the mission of a reasonably extended existence. These insects moult 
an unusual number of times, eight being no uncommon number and twenty- 
one occurring in one species. 

The Locustidse include winged and wingless species. The wings are 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


241 

supplied with a drum-like attachment, which is the means of the reveille 
which we hear. Of the wingless species, the so-called stone-crickets are a 
type. One species of the winged kind is migratory in its habits, and sometimes 
descends upon the valleys in numbers like the famed army of Xerxes. 

The true Grasshopper is herbivorous, and sufficiently common to make 
the means of study easy. 

However delightful to chil¬ 
dren and interesting to ento¬ 
mologists, the grasshopper is 
at times incredibly destructive. 

Prof. C. V. Riley devoted 
much time to the study of 
these successors to the bor¬ 
der ruffians, and a summary 
of his results will be found 
of interest. Fifteen million 
dollars is the loss inflicted in 
a single year. 

The grasshopper is a genuine troubadour, and his musical call to court¬ 
ship is produced by a transparent membrane covering a hole at the base of 
the wings. Like many a singer of mediaeval times, he devotes the hours not 
given to love to plundering, and in wanton wastefulness puts to the blush the 

famous Goths and Vandals. 

The Acrididae, or True Locusts, 
is the largest family and the most 
destructive among insects. They have 
short antennae, composed of numerous 
joints. The migratory species is fre¬ 
quently referred to in the Bible. The 
Rocky Mountain locust wrought such 
devastation in the seventies that it has 
been credited with causing the financial 
crisis. The fact that this locust is un¬ 
usually developed in its digestive and 
reproductive system; that it is strong of 
wing and fitted for continued flights; 
that it is gregarious, and that a swarm 
is always perfectly organized, renders it 
an intruder to be feared. In a few hours 
they have reduced wide stretches of the 
most promising corn to mere stubble ; they 
come apparently as avengers of uncon¬ 
scious wrong, for the resistless torrent 
of their approach most frequently occurs when the crop is largest and ripest; 
and when settled good weather has led the farmer to escape for a moment 
from his ever-recurring cares, and to dream those dreams which steal over 
him as he stands about to realize the returns for severe and long-continued 
toil and self-denial. 

Migratory Locusts. The swarming of the armies of the world would 
16 



mole-cricket (Gryllotalpa vulgaris ). 



MAY-BEETLE—NYMPH, LARVAE AND FLY. 









■242 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


be small in comparison with that of the mighty army of migratory locusts; the 
descent of the Goths and Vandals was insignificant in the extent and rapidity 
of devastation when compared to the speedy and effective work of the locust. 
Towards the close of the seventeenth century, for example, three swarms of 
locusts simultaneously invaded Poland, and almost, as if by magic, they covered 
the ground to a depth of several feet, loaded the trees until these bent 
beneath the weight, and exterminated every vestige of the crops and vegetation. 

In Tartary the swarming of locusts is frequent and their number illimit¬ 
able. In Barbary the people have learned how to tear off the disguise of such 
a blessing and convert the intruders into delicacies for the table. 

The Gryllidse, or Crickets, have a vertical head in which are set elliptical 
eyes; the body is cylindrical, the antennae (or feelers) long and their wings 
veined, the front pair ovate, the hind pair triangular; the legs are short and 
armed with spurs. In prehistoric times the cricket’s chirp was heard in the 
land, and the beetle droned his evening song. They are the Quakers of the 
insect world in respect to their disbelief in war and contention. They house in 
burrows, and generally live, hermit-like, alone; their never-wearisome vesper song 
is produced by rubbing together the wings, so some naturalists say, but I doubt 
it. As a rule they are herbivorous, but have been known to eat animal matter. 

The Mole-Cricket is in appearance somewhat like the mole, is of large 
size, and lives underground, being well fitted out for burrowing. They make 
endless galleries, ever changing in direction, and destroy all roots which come 
in their way. Laying as many as four hundred eggs, it is easy to see the 
rapid rate of increase. The common house cricket has been the frequent theme 
of poet’s song and household story. What story or play more familiar 
or touching than “The Cricket on the Hearth?” What sound more home-like 
or more welcome than the chirping of the cricket by the winter’s fire? Its 
love for warmth and moisture frequently leads it to take early possession of 
new houses, and to be prepared to welcome the owner amidst the discomforts 
of taking possession. It is a naturalized denizen of the United States, its pro¬ 
genitors having come from the far East, which contributes so much to the 
luxuries of life. Then there is the other little field-cricket , and yet again the 
more brightly colored tree-cricket , whose coloring, however, hardly compensates 
for the injury it does to vines and fruit trees. 

The Cicadae have two parchment-like sacs gathered into plaits and located 
in the cavity at the bottom of the abdomen ; the ribbing has all the effect of 
the reeds in an organ. The species most common in the United States is black 
above and brown beneath; others are black or brown with yellow or red markings. 
The cicada septemdecem lives a subterranean life of seventeen years, rioting upon 
the sap of forest and fruit trees. After so extended a life of apparently uninter¬ 
rupted enjoyment, the cicada digs its way to the surface, and casting off its skin 
is transformed into a winged creature of the air. The largest of the species is 
the lantern-fly of Brazil; it is greenish-yellow, spotted on the humps and on 
the side of the head, with rose-colored borders to its wings, which are also 
veined with black, and have an olive-colored spot bordered by dark brown. 

The Candle-fly, (.Fulgoria candelaria) is common in China and in the 
East Indies. They are in color orange or greenish, and have highly decorated 
wings. The children use them as pets. The lystra lavata has a peculiar method 
of escaping destruction. It secretes and projects from the abdomen silvery tape- 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


243 


like threads, which, being the most striking feature, are seized by pursuing 
birds. The insect bites off this, to him non-essential member, and thus enjoys 
an April fool, while the hunter secures but a cotton muffin. 

Plant Lice are oval, green in color, and have long, slender antennae. In 
many cases they are used by the ant as milch cows. 

The Bed-Bug pumps instead of sucking blood. It is too familiar an insect 
to require a description, though it may be said that as a subject for the micro¬ 
scope it has an interest which it altogether lacks when regarded as an unwel¬ 
come intruder into our houses. The bed-bug deposits its eggs four times a year 
—March, May, July and September—and fifty is the usual number of a brood, 
which mature in eleven weeks. It appeared in England after the “Great Fire” 
and is supposed to have been imported with the timber used in repairing 
the losses. The bed-bug is called a “ Norfolk Howard ” in Great Britain, owing 
to a story to the following effect: A person being named Bug, and Bug being 
restricted to the bed-bug , grew sufficiently weary of constant but poor jokes and 
Avitticisms. Having secured from Parliament a change of his name to Norfolk 
Howard, the wicked punsters transferred the new name to the insect, and thus 
again proved that “ the 
best-laid plans of men 
and mice gang aft aglee.” 

The Coleoptera 
(sheath-winged ) Bee¬ 
tles are six-legged, have 
chewing mouth organs, 
horny fore-wings, and 
their metamorphosis is 
essentially radical. The 
wings are, when not in 
use, protected by sheaths 
(elytra); in the species 
whose wings are rudi 
mentary the elytra form 
a. protection for the ab¬ 
domen. It is said that 
upwards of seventy-five thousand species have already been distinguished and 
described by persistent entomologists, whose delight is in the pursuit. 

The Colorado potatc-bug , or beetle , has been spread as an incident of com¬ 
merce and transportation. ‘ The carpet beetle is a European immigrant. The 
mea l, or flour beetle (Tenebrio molitor ), and the grain weevil ( Calandra . granaria ), 
are likewise illustrations of the importations of pauper labor from Europe. 
The beetle furnishes an inviting subject for the student of entomology because 
it is numerous, easily obtainable, capable of being reared, and because there 
remains ample opportunity for original discovery. The antennae serve the 
double function of feelers and of a nose. The front wings seem to serve the 
use of a ship’s rudder, and the hinder wings that of its propeller. The organs 
of hearing have not yet been located, but naturalists unite m asserting that the 
beetle has this sense. The creation of sound is effected by friction of the legs, 
wings or body; usually by rubbing the hind legs against a segment of the 
abdomen. 



flesh eating coleoptera of the family carabid^. 

Calosoma sycophanta. Anthia duodecimpunctata. Carabus gryphceus. 




244 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




The fire-fly and some other species are luminous, but naturalists have not 
yet succeeded in determining the method of the production of light. Beetles 

live separately and in communities; they seem to 
be indifferent to locality ; temperature appears to have 
no effect, and they are practically omnivorous. Their 
irreconcilable enemies are fish, toads, frogs, birds and 
skunks, parasitic flies and worms, wasps, mites and 
parasitic fungi. As a protection, many beetles take 
on the semblance to plants and to different insects. 
The potato beetle deceives the birds by its likeness 
to the potato leaves. Some beetles take on the sem¬ 
blance of fire-flies; some resemble seeds, twigs, and 
parts of plants. So, too, some species feign death as 
a means of escape ; some protect themselves by un¬ 
pleasant odors or by disagreeable secretions. The 
coleoptera minister to the pleasures or necessities of 
mankind, being used for blisters ( cantharides ); for 
medicinal remedies; for viands ; for ornament (chryso- 
chas); and as gladiators. The coleoptera destroy 
myriads of noxious insects, act as scavengers, assist 
in the fertilization of plants, furnish dainty repasts for 
birds and fishes. Their indiscriminate zeal for destruc¬ 
tion makes them unfriendly to crops, lumber, trees, 
books, furniture and carpets. Chief among the scav- 


COLORADO POT v TO-BUG, EGGS AND 
LARVAL NAT. SIZE. 


engers is the 
sea rab ceus , 
though it is 
not known to 
devour putrid 
flesh. It is so 
classed, how¬ 
ever, because 
of its habit of 
depositing its 
eggs in the 
dung of cattle, 
which it gath¬ 
ers, and by 
rolling con¬ 
verts into a 
round ball, 
which is after¬ 
wards buried. 

It is common¬ 
ly known in 
this country 
as the tumble- 
bug , from its 
habit of tumbling about with its ball. 


SACRED SCARABJEUS, OR TUMBLE-BUG. 


In the early age of Egypt it was held sacred. 










THE LIVING WORLD. 


245 


The Lady-Birds, or Lady-Bugs {Coccine Hides) , are brilliant in coloring, 
which may be black, red, yellow, white or spotted; they are too common to 
require description. 

The Five-jointed Beetle ( Cryptipentamera ) is a leaf eater. A highly 
colored species is not infrequently used as jewelry. 

The Potato Beetle ( Coptocyda clavata) is a "frequent pest. The crepidera 
ruin the tobacco leaf; there is a turnip bee tie , a cucumber beetle , a grape-vine 
beetle ,. as well as many others which manifest a preference for some vegetable 
or fruit valued by man. The Colorado beetle , or the potato-bug, was quick to 
exchange its previous diet for the 
potato, and has spread from the 
Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic 
coast. A natural traveller when 
opportunity offers, it has availed 
itself of the advantages of rapid 
transit as furnished by our rail¬ 
ways. It lays from five hundred 
eggs upwards, and these require 
but a week to hatch. The larvae 
mature within eighteen days, and 
then go under ground and are 
transformed into pupae; at the 
end of ten days the pupa devel¬ 
ops into the perfect beetle. These 
beetles have as many as four 
broods yearly, and as they hiber¬ 
nate, and as the larvae as well 
as the beetles feed upon plants, 
their destructiveness can easily 
be imagined ; at times their rav¬ 
ages have been such as to in¬ 
duce foreign nations to prohibit 
the importation of American po¬ 
tatoes. It has acquired new tastes 
in the absence of potatoes, will 
eat cabbage, thistles, and even 
oats. Within twenty-five years it 
has readjusted itself to every va¬ 
riety of climate ; has changed its 
diet, and has assumed great variety of form. Thus it strikingly illustrates the 
doctrine of adaptation to conditions, and Divine provision for the otherwise 
helpless, while the brevity of the time occupied in its development renders it 
a specially good subject for the modern naturalist. The common barn-yard 
chicken and the duck, as well as crows and frogs, render good service in 
taking the botato-bug where it shall no longer eat, but be eaten. 

CORN WEEVIL AND ITS RAVAGES. 

The Corn Weevil ( Calandria granaria) has no preference, but feeds with 
equal satisfaction upon corn, oats, wheat, barley, or rice; furthermore, it pre- 



pestle water-bug and larvae (Hydrophilus piceus). 29. 
lady-bug and larvae (Coccinella septempundata) 13. 
pine beetle (Buprestis Marianna ). 17. wool beetle 

(Lagria hirta). 15. brilliant beetle and larvae ( Meli - 
gethes brassicce). 34. horse-fly (Musca vomitoria). 40. 
horse louse fly (Hippobosca equina ). 16. bacon beetle 

(Dermestes lardarius). 36. ring-fly (Syrphus festivus). 





246 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




fers the grain after the farmer has prepared it for storing in his barns. The 
weevil lays its eggs inside of a grain, so that the larvae may eat the substance 
and leave to the farmer the form only. In about six weeks the weevil attains 
maturity, and is ready and anxious to continue the work of his progenitors. 
As a single weevil can in four or five months raise a healthy family of six 

thousand young weevils , his troublesomeness 
to our agricultural interests is easy to realize. 
This insect,'as is estimated, destroys three hun¬ 
dred thousand bushels each year of European 
wheat. 

The premature falling of fruit from trees 
is generally due to the larvae of the plum- 
weevil , which destroys apples, pears, plums, 
nectarines, peaches, apricots, cherries and 
quinces. As the fallen fruit contains these 
larvae, it should at once be fed to hogs, or 
otherwise destroyed, instead of being left to 
corn weevil, natural size and mag- rot on the groU nd. Nearly all the several 

species are more or less harmful, though 
they all have their uses in the wonderful economy of nature. 

The Sacred Scarabaeus (. Ateuchus sacer ), vulgarly called tumble-bug , figures 
in the carved monuments of the Egyptians, by whom it was esteemed sacred. 
It is about an inch long, flat in form, dull black in coloring. The Egyptians 
used the scarabaeus as a 
symbol of the earth, be¬ 
cause of its activity from 
sunrise to sunset in roll¬ 
ing its ball of booty ; as a 
symbol of the sun, because 
of the raylike projections 
from the head; as a type 
of the warrior; as a symbol 
of fecundity and as em¬ 
blematic of Isis and Osiris. 

The Common May- 
Bug ( Melolontha vulgaris ) 
has a pair of sheathed 
wings, reddish-brown 
(though frequently 
sprinkled with a white 
dust) ; the neck covered 
with a black or red plate; 
forelegs adapted to burrow- 

since it makes its nest male, larvae and nymph of may-bug. 

half a foot under ground. 

Three months are required before the egg releases a small grub, which 
continues a predatory existence for about three years, gradually increasing 
in size until it becomes the red-headed white maggot usually found in newly- 
dug earth. It provides itself with new clothing every year, and at the end of 




THE HIVING WORLD. 


247 


the fourth year prepares for its transformation. Returning yet further under¬ 
ground, it builds itself a roomy dwelling, and passes three months in accom¬ 
plishing its change to a winged insect. In May they burst upon the vege¬ 
table world, and frequently blunder into houses, and annoy, rather than injure, 
the in-dwellers. The bug should be killed upon its first appearance, before it 
has had the opportunity to lay its eggs, for the great damage done by this 
insect takes place during its underground, larval existence. 

The common may-bug sometimes swarms so as to obscure the sunlight 
and obstruct the road-way. But however uncomfortable this inconvenience may 
be, it is transient, whereas the devastation committed in the larval stage is 
beyond estimate. So serious has been their depredations in France that 
legislative action has been required ; in a single department there were collected, 
in the space of a fortnight, thirty-two 
carloads of these insects, which had 
already destroyed one-fourth of the crop. 

The Spanish Fly (. Lytta vesicatoria ) 
is three-quarters of an inch in length, 
bronze-green in color, common in Europe 
and Asia, and feeds mainly upon the 
ash. Under the name of cantharides, it 
is an article of commerce and a medicinal 
remedy. The earliest larval form ( triun- 
gulin ) changes to a small, six-footed white 
grub, whose sharp mandibles are short¬ 
ened and blunted. At the end of five 
days this grub moults, and again a sec¬ 
ond time at the end of another five days, 
when its eyes disappear. It now de¬ 
scends into the ground, and after five 
days changes to a yellowish-white, after 
which it hibernates, until with the open¬ 
ing of spring a third larval form is produced. In about two weeks it assumes 
the form of a beetle, and in twenty days reaches maturity. 

Garden Hair Beetle \Bibio hortulanus ) is black when male, and rusty- 
red when female. 

The Flour-Bug, also called the Meal Beetle ( Tenebno molitor), is found 
about flour-mills, granaries, and bakeries. 

The Mourning-Bug {Blaps mortisaga) lives m cellars and dark places. 
It is the darkest colored of the beetles, and its sombre appearance has given 
it its popular name. 

St. John’s-Bug (. Lampyris splendidula) is a glow-worm—gray-brown m 
the male, and golden white in the female. Its lighting apparatus is m the 
body, but the source of supply or the real nature of the phosphorescence is 
still unknown. The pleasures of childhood would be greatly curtailed by the 
absence of these little star-twinklers, and their beauty and attractiveness are 
not neutralized by any harmful propensities. . 

Cucuja, or Phosphorescent Beetle ( Cucuja sanguinolentus) , is so luminous 
that a single one furnishes light enough for the reading offprint, and eight 
of them imprisoned in a vial will enable one to read script 



weaver beetle ( Lamia textor ) and fire-fly, 
male, female and nymph ( Lampyris r.oc- 
tiluca ). 


The illuminating 



248 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


apparatus consists of two yellow patches on the thorax and two more beneath 
the elytra. In the Indian Archipelago these insects are so numerous as to 

convey the impression that the trees are 
illuminated by Chinese lanterns, or gemmed 
with rubies of the richest dye. It has 
a short, bright head, large eyes, and illu¬ 
minates the darkness with a greenish, 
golden fire. The Cuban ladies frequently 
imprison this beetle in the tissue of their 
evening dresses, and thus multiply their 
attractions. 

The Weaver-Bug {Lamia textor ), a 
European borer into willow trees, from one 
to one and a quarter inches in length, 
and about one-half as broad ; is dark brown 
with yellow body beneath the cased wings. 

Alpine Goat-Bug, found in the high 
Alps, is named from a goat-like odor which 
it exudes. It feeds upon the willow, oak, 
poplar and other trees, and constructs its 
caves within them. It does not waste the 
wood which it throws out while burrowing, 
but uniting this with silk, which it spins, 
makes a thick hanging for its apartments. It hibernates, and before reaching 
its final metamorphosis has en¬ 
joyed a life of* three years. 

The Grape-vine Sucker 
(.Pelidnota punctata) is brown¬ 
ish yellow above, having the 
back and sides of the head 
black, a single dot on each 
side of the prothorax, three dots 
near the margin of each elytrum, 
greenish black beneath the body 
and on the legs. It is noctur¬ 
nal in its habits, and hence 
more difficult to detect. 

The Parti-colored Ant- 
Bug (Clerusformicarius) is ant¬ 
like in appearance, and is one" 
of seven hundred species. 

The larvae are predaceous and 
take up their homes in bee¬ 
hives, where they live upon the 
honey comb. They sometimes 
make their burrow among the 
coleoptera. 

The Seed Runner {Agriotus lineatus) is brown in color, and may easily 
be mistaken for a part of the plant upon which it rests. 



grape vine LOUSE (Phylloxera vastatrix). 1. back of louse, 

2. BELLY OF LOUSE 6. PIECE OF ROOT BORED BY LOUSE- 3. 
LOUSE BORING. 4. PERFECT FLY. 5. ROOT SHOWING SWELL¬ 
ING CAUSED BY SUCKING OF THE INSECT. 



32. hawk fly ( Asilus oslaudicus). 31. HAIR-FLY 
(Bibio hortulanus). 19. alpine goat beetle 
(Rosalia alpina). 39. flea ( Pulex irrilans). 
28. Lina populi. 





THE LIVING WORLD. 


249 

The Brilliant Beetle (.Meligethes brassicce ) revels in the brightest and 
hottest sunshine, and distracts one’s attention from his personal discomfort. 

The Bacon Beetle (.Dermestes lardarius) is three-quarters of an inch in 
length, burnished black, oval, elongated in shape, will feign death, and can be 
depended upon to eat anything that comes in his way. This beetle is destruc¬ 
tive to the museum, the warehouse, the store or the pantry; drugs are grate¬ 
ful to them, tobacco is not distasteful, woolen or silk, feather or fur, is to 
them palatable and nutritious. It takes its name from its fondness for the 
Southern dish of bacon. 

The Wool Beetle (.Hagria hirto ) is black with yellow wings. It lives 
upon vegetables and blood of insects. 

The Sand Beetle (Cicindella campestris ) lives on sandy banks, while their 
larvae pass their lives half a foot under ground, though they come to the sur¬ 
face for food. Their white coloring affords protection, 
by rendering them difficult to be distinguished from 
the sand. 

The Leather Beetle (Carabus coriaceus ) is 
black, half an inch in length, abundant in Europe, 

where it feeds 
33 upon worms, cat- 

X 5 ^ erpillars, and 

other insects. 

The Swim¬ 
ming Beetle 
{Dytiscus margi- 
nalis) lives in, not 
merely upon, the 
water. It is guided 
by sight. Some 
species are mu- 

•V swimming BEETLE (Dyticus marginalis). 22. mourning beetle {Blaps morti- s { ca p They are 
saga). 26. spanish-fly {Lyjta^ vesicatoria). 21. parti-colored ant beetle rare |y f ounc [ j n 

salt water, but do 




(Clems formicarius). 33. Ogcodesgibbosus. 


not object to hot springs; like the camel, they are able to carry supplies, 
though they select air and not food. He has the power of making flaccid his 
shelly covering, so as to escape from the enemy wishing to feed upon him. 

The Hunting Beetle (Staphylinus erythropterus) is brown and gold m 
coloring, sometimes black and gray, again brown, black and yellow. 

The Pestle Beetle (Claviger foreolatus ) is used by the ants as a milch cow; 
its reproduction is by depositing from twenty to one hundred eggs m a cocoon 
sometimes attached to a plant, and sometimes to the parent. The larvae prey 
upon one another; they seize flies and suck their blood 

The Death Simulator (Hister unicolor ) is round, hard and seed-like It 
lives upon decaying vegetable and animal matter. In color it is generally black. 
By drawino- in its legs and assuming the form of a ball it successfully simu¬ 
lates death This sometimes protects it against attack, and sometimes renders 

ltS P The 11 Burying-Bug (Necropko^us vespillio) is a European species, which lays 
its eggs in animals which it has buried. It is most frequently black (or black 







250 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


relieved by stripes of yellow); its wings are marked with two orange-colored bands. 
It flies or runs with rapidity and ease, and is offensive mainly from its office as 
a scavenger. It does its damage by cutting the roots which may intercept its 
path. Its front feet are used like those of the mole, and are equally skilful 
and efficient. It ingeniously burrows beneath its prey, and thus causes it to 
bury itself, in which the eggs are then deposited. The buried body is thus 
made to serve the double purpose of furnishing a receptacle which promotes 
development of the eggs, and also provides sustenance to the larvae as soon as 
they issue from the envelope. 

The Stag Beetle (Lucamis cerous), or Corn-Bug, is a European species; it is 
there commonly called the cockchafer. It flies heavily, with a whirr like that of 
a pheasant. It has a familiar representative in the American tumble-bug, 

especially the larger species, which 
is similarly provided with a horn on 
the snout. The stag beetle's antennae 
bear a striking resemblance to the 
horns of the deer. It burrows into 
trees to deposit its larvae. 

The Rhinoceros Beetle, a curious 
creature, is so named from its hav¬ 
ing a long and back-curving horn on 
the snout, which bears a striking re¬ 
semblance to the nasal weapon of the 
rhinoceros. To this class also belongs 
the hercules bug , a very large crea¬ 
ture, and probably the greatest of all 
the insect family. To its immense 

size, sometimes exceeding three inches, 
is added a formidable appearance, 
though it is dangerous only by rea¬ 
son of its power to inspire fright, 

since it has no ability to do any 
considerable harm beyond a slight 

pinch, equal to that of a small crab. 
The Magnificent Pine Beetle (Bu- 
prestis marianna ) cannot move when laid upon its back. It girdles trees, for 
which the beautiful coloring of the many species (green, copper, bronze, for 
example), is not a sufficient compensation. This insect is called magnificent, 
not. only because of its brilliant wing sheathes, but also on account of its 
graceful appearance, whether at rest or in flight. It is found in many parts 
of the United States, and its presence is easily discovered by the marks of its 
ravages, or rather the ravages of its larvae, for the adult beetle is not known 
to commit such depredations itself. The eggs are deposited in a rift, or 

beneath the bark of a tree, and there left to nature to hatch. Directly after 

the young appear they begin eating the inner bark, and continue their feasting 
in tortuous courses, and often circular, apparently taking care not to show 

themselves, being a wood-worm, until they emerge into a perfect beetle. A 

tree thus girdled rarely shows any outward effects of the damage so done until 

the following year, when the buds put out slowly and the tree gradually dies. 



30. ring-tailed gallinipper ( Culex annulatus ). 10. 

rhinoceros-bug ( Oryctes tiasicomes). 35. cater¬ 
pillar fly ( Tachina fera). 37. cattle-fly {Oes¬ 
trus bovis). 22 flour beetle and larvae (Tene- 
brio molitor). 





■THE LIVING WORLD. 


251 


The Tiger Beetle is quite common and is strikingly beautiful. Its cover¬ 
ing is an armor studded with gems and embossed with gold, and no chain- 
mail ever adapted itself more readily and more perfectly to the graceful and rapidly 
changing attitudes of its wearer. To the unassisted eye it may appear to be 
but a dull green, but subjected to the magnifying power of a microscope it dis¬ 
plays the most marvellous beauty of coloring and of mechanism. It is to be 
found throughout Asia, Europe and America. 

The Brachmus crepitans is noteworthy because upon being touched it 
discharges, with a sensible explosion, a pungent vapor, which has all the 
effect of a mordant acid. The beetle , which makes its home in the 
Mammoth Cave of Kentucky, is blind—an evident adaptation to the con¬ 
ditions of its existence. The flattening of the hind legs into propelling oars 
of the water-beetle , and its ability to store away air in receptacles under 
the elytra, are yet other illustrations of the same intelligent Providence. 
The common whirligigs of our ponds and streams worship the sun with a con¬ 
stancy and intensity, so far surpassing the fabled statue of Memnon or the 
mythology of the sun¬ 
flower, as to bring them 
into comparison with 
the human sun-wor¬ 
shippers of the Orient. 

The devil's coach-horse, 
or rove-beetle , is fierce 
out of proportion to its 
size, and can, like the 
pole-cat, render itself 
unexpectedly and ef¬ 
fectively offensive. 

The “ shard-borne bee¬ 
tle,” of Gray’s “ Elegy 
in a Country Church¬ 
yard,” is so described 
because of the promi¬ 
nence of its elytra. The 

bronze beetle is a strikingly handsome species. There is an Indian beetle 
whose thorax is a burnished blue, relieved on the sides by copper-colored inden¬ 
tations ; its elytra are cream-colored, and have patches of purple at the tip and 
on both sides. The cardinal beetle is flame-colored, and illustrates the inimit¬ 
able richness of natural dyes. 

Lina Populi, or Linden Beetle, is black, green or blue; its wings are 
red with black borders. 

The Seven-dotted Lady-Bug is hemispherical, hairless, and the largest 
and most common European species. It is called in Europe, the lady-bird, 
and in America, the lady-bug. It has a black and white head and reddish 
elytra. The species of this country is very small, with red elytra dotted with black. 

Hercules Bug (. Dynasta Herculi ) is found in tropical America; it is six 
inches long, black, the elytra blue-green, with black spots.. 

Flesh-eating Coleoptera embrace many of the families named cicellides, 
car abides, dytiscides , and coccine Hides. 



252 


THE LIVING WORLD, 


The Diptera, or Two-winged Flies, are the most numerous species of 
insects ; their small size, and often their quiet colors, prevent their attracting 
such attention as they deserve, alike as a study for the entomologist and 
because of their relation to man’s interests. Their wings, though tenuous, are 
capable of the most rapid vibration, as in the case of the house-fly, which 
reaches four hundred movements per second. Of the one hundred thousand 
species known, most are the benefactors or useful servants of mankind, destroy¬ 
ing, or at least reducing, matter which would else prove the source of sick¬ 
ness and death; diminishing the number of insects which rob the farmer of 
the rewards of his toil; and illustrating many a lesson which mankind seems 
to require to have repeatedly urged upon his notice. In the colder climates, 
where vegetation is less rank, water less stagnant, and animal life less trouble¬ 
some, the diptera are fewer in species; but as conditions unfavorable to 
animal or human life multiply, these insects likewise increase in number, 
variety and useful activity. Thus do they illustrate the wonderful way in 
which the Creator renders the world fit for the habitancy of his children, and 
increases our sense of responsibility for discharging our duties as persistently 
and as cheerfully as do these little beings. Gnats, mosquitoes, Hessian-flies, 

the wheat-fly, the horse-fly, 
the asilus-fly, and the bott- 
fly are the most interesting 
members of the diptera. 

The Gnat ( culexpipitus) 
has a long and cylindrical 
body; its wings are covered 
with scales; its antennae are 
feather-like; its eyes seem 
to occupy the whole of its 
head, and are protected by 
a net work. The trunk, or 
sucker, is cylindrical, and 
contains a bundle of stings, each of which is composed of six parts; 
its sting is followed up by the injection of an irritating liquid. During 
the larval period it appears as a worm in stagnant waters, and comes to the sur¬ 
face to inhale air for respiration, which it does through organs located in the last 
segment of the body. It sheds its skin several times. As a pupa it has no 
digestive organs, and replaces the posterior air tube of the larva by two ear-like 
appendages on the head. With its last transformation it ceases to be a water- 
insect ; indeed, water is so fatal to it, that if touched by a liquid immediately after 
parting from the pupal stage, it dies at once. During this period, brief as 
measured by the life of man, but doubtless of painful length to the gnat , it 
sails about in its sheath, using its new body as mast and sail. A basin of water, 
a few gnats and a microscope, will enable those who are “ inland bred ” to enjoy 
the spectacle of a miniature sea studded with the sails of many a craft; or to 
dream many a legend of spectral boatmen; or to study those changes’which 
have the. profoundest significance for the biologist. When, finally, the gnat 
liberates itself from its boat-like sheath, it leaves the water forever, and joins the 
insects whose habitation is the dry land. As gnats breed throughout the whole 
year, and at intervals of three or four weeks, it can readily be seen that great 



a. b. c. d. e. the bott, or gad-fey and larva (Gastus equi) 
II. WHEAT BUG (Anisoplia segetum). 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


253 



is the need for their services, and that equally great, at times, is the need for 
checking their undue multiplication. 

The mosquito is one of the best known species of gnats. Disagreeable as 
they are to one whose attention is absorbed by his own personal discomfort, they 
are among the most useful laborers in the field of animal economy. As one 
travels southward, the need for their services grows more pressing, and their 
presence and, as it seems to the ignorant, pernicious activity becomes more and 
more noticeable. In cities their number diminishes with improvements in drain¬ 
age, but experience would seem to 
suggest that their absence is bought 
at the cost of increase in frequency 
and fatality of several forms of 
disease; the disagreeable and the 
helpful, as well as the pleasant and 
the dangerous, are not always recog¬ 
nized. Mosquito-bars have doubtless 
become too well known to excite sur¬ 
prise in America, but the reader may 
not be aware that at no greater dis¬ 
tance than that of the Louisiana 
plantations, persons find it necessary 
to surround their rooms with a mos¬ 
quito bar that they may attend to 
the cares of household life. It is 
probably better known that in Min¬ 
nesota, and in forest tracks north as 
well as south, the lumbermen have 
at times to protect their heads and 
hands. In Africa the mosquito has 
been a more dangerous enemy than 
the savage tribes, dense jungles and 
dangerous streams with which Liv¬ 
ingston and Stanley had to contend. 

The eggs of the mosquito are laid 
in the water and float in little skil¬ 
fully constructed rafts upon its sur¬ 
face. Within a few days the larvae 
are hatched, and appear in the form 
of what children call wriggles. Dur¬ 
ing the pupal stage the mosquito 
changes its skin two or three times, 
and exchanges its breathing tube 

at the hips for two others, which proceed from the thorax. In tune 
pupa exuviates, and the young mosquito begins his career of labor attended by 
song far surpassing in its constancy the music-crowned labors of the wine-press, 
and calculated to render a real service to mankind, instead of betraying him by 
delights which inebriate but do not cheer. 

The larger sized species are frequently called gallinippers. The well-known 
daddy-long-legs belongs to this family, and the thinness of his dispropor- 


COMMON GNAT, {Culex pipiens), AND ITS METAMORPHOSES 
MAGNIFIED. EARV^E OPENING THEIR RESPIRATORY 
DOORS ON THE SURFACE OF THE WATER- NYMPHS AND 
PERFECT INSECTS. 










THE LIVING WORLD. 


tionate members would seem to be a provision for escape from the web of the 
hostile spider ; certain it is, that the loss of one or more legs never seems to 
embarrass him. The asilidce or robber-flies are the most predaceous of the fly 

family; they have scattered them¬ 
selves throughout the world, and 
are so numerous that twenty-five 
hundred species have already 
been classified. The Hessian-fly 
takes his name from the fact that 
his appearance in America was 
simultaneous with the coming 
of the Hessians of the Revolu¬ 
tionary period. These unfortu¬ 
nate soldiers were not, as our 
forefathers supposed, willing hire¬ 
lings, but having been sold by a 
spendthrift king to the British 
monarch, were impressed, though 
in their homes, or in the street, 
and left to fight or die in 

THE MORMOLYCE PHYLLODES- » • • -P 

America ; it is, however, through 
no crime of theirs that our crops have been ravaged by this insect pest. It 
hatches two broods a year, and lays as many as a hundred eggs at a time; these eggs 
are deposited in the grain stalks, so that in addition to the loss from the appetite of 
the larvae, the plant suf¬ 
fers from an obstructed or 
suspended circulation. 

The horsefly is remarka¬ 
ble for its long-sustained 
flights, and though irri¬ 
tating to horses and 
cattle, is less dangerous 
than mosquitoes and 
gnats. The oleander 
hawk-fly ( asilus oleandi- 
eus) passes its larval 
period underground, or 
buried in rotten wood. 

It is very predaceous, and 
though fond of the ole¬ 
ander, is not disinclined 
to prey upon its own spe¬ 
cies. bott fly ox gad¬ 

fly lays its eggs in the 
skin of cattle, or on the 
hair on the knees and 
shoulders of horses, which 
in licking themselves swallow the eggs. The vestrus bovis (cattle-fly) sometimes 
occupies the front and nasal cavities of sheep and oxen; another species burrows 


HERCULES BUG. male and pemale ( Dynastes Hercules ). 






THE LIVING WORLD, 


255 


in the hides of oxen. The horse-fly proper (gastrophilus equi) attaches a single 
egg to a single hair of the horse. In its larval period it feeds upon the stomach of 
the horse, and exhibits a strange power of apparent suspension of respiration when 
the air is unfit for 
its use. At the end 
of ten months the 
larvae, being ready 
for metamorphosis 
into pupae, are ejected 
with the excrement 
of the horse, and re¬ 
turn like a fright¬ 
ened child to the 
bosom of Mother 
Earth. 

The House-Fly 

is ash-colored and 
has a black face, 
whose sides are yel¬ 
low. The forehead 
has yellowish black 
stripes. The thorax 
is blackened; the 
abdomen pale be¬ 
neath and yellow on 
the sides. The feet 
are black, and the 
wings transparent. 

The proboscis is a 
separate organ, thick, 
membranous, and 
ending in two lobes, 
which form from the 
lower lip and the 
mandibles a blade¬ 
like instrument. 

Beginning life as a 
white maggot, upon 
approaching the 
chrysalis, or pupal 
stage, it shortens its 
body and hardens 
its skin, and for the 
first time develops 
a head and legs, 
and replaces its rudi¬ 
mentary month by 
a true mouth. Filth 
different to the wide 



metamorphosis oe the dragon FEY. (. Libella depressa.) 

to them the staff of life, and they seem to 
differences between sugar and tobacco spittle. 


be in- 
Tliis 

























THE LIVING WORLD. 


256 

healthful but repulsive appetite is thus made to subserve the sanitary inter¬ 
ests of the higher animals. The larval stage is about a fortnight in duration; 
the egg period but twenty-four hours; the pupal age a >veek or two. Exam¬ 
ined under the microscope, the wonders of their mechanism become apparent, 
and one cannot but be struck by the wonderful provision for the life which 
they are to. live. 

The Sheep-Tick and the Bat-Tick have aborted wings—an illustration of 
the economy of natural life, which, except in man, prevents one’s powers from 
wasting because unused, by removing the organs which would serve no useful 
purpose. The fungus gnat ) found under the bark of tfees, when about to be 
transferred into pupa, will form into long processions five inches in breadth, 
and travel in a solid column. This fly is known as the army-worm, and its 
ravages are well known. The blow-fly (Musca vomitoria) is well known to 
housekeepers by its jet-black color, and varied by the steel-blue of the 
abdomen, by its ready perception of the odors of food which is being cooked, 

and by its persistent 
intrusiveness in deposit¬ 
ing in meat or vege¬ 
tables eggs which will 
hatch in a single day. 
The gall-fly is a very 
minute, very delicately 
constructed, and very 
beautiful species. The 
galls so frequently seen 
upon the oak are swell¬ 
ings caused by the in¬ 
sect, which uses them 
as a nest for its eggs, of 
which as many as sixty 
have been found in a 
single gall. Though single species confine themselves to some favorite kind of plant, 
yet among the various species numbers of trees and plants are thus selected, 
and as the insect attacks every part of the plant, from the smallest to 
the thickest root, and from the wood of the root to the most delicate leaf, its 
devastations are to be feared. The buffalo gnat is found in incredible numbers 
in the Southern States, and causes the most serious loss of cattle. Another 
species is found in the Eastern and Middle States, and is called the black- 
fly. Sportsmen in the Adirondacks, for example, suffer great annoyance 
unless they respect the season which this irritating insect appropriates to 
itself, with such annoying results to its victims. 

The Triodite devours the eggs of the locust. The syrfhus vestius is 
half an inch in length, and is marked with yellow bands upon a green 
metallic ground. Its larvae feed upon plant-lice, and thus keep their number 
within some sort of bounds. The stable-fly does not frequent dwellings, 
and as it lives by sucking the blood of vertebrates, its proboscis is slenderer, 
stronger and better adapted for piercing. 

The Tsetse Fly, though deadly to domestic animals, is harmless to- 
men and to wild animals. 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


25 7 


African travellers tell of the courage of the tsetse-fly which disputes with 
man the possession of the land; it has been known even to prevent either agriculture 
or exploration. In form not unlike our horse-fly. it resembles the snake in the 
secretion of the most deadly poison. To be sure this poison is fatal only to 
domesticated animals (except the goat and ass), but no industries can be carried 
on without the aid of our beasts of burden. The tsetse never goes in swarms, 
being fortunately few in number, and therefore its effect upon domestic animals 
is the more surprising. The buffalo gnats of Arkansas and other southern 
districts will occasionally worry cattle to death, but these attack in such great 
swarms as to fairly drain their victims of blood. The tsetse , on the other hand, 
while a blood-sucker, does not do any great damage by the mere act of secur¬ 
ing its supply of nourishment, but by injecting a virulent poison into the 
wound, from which its victim languishes, first losing all appetite and gradually 
growing weaker as the poison continues through the system, until complete 
exhaustion is soon followed by death. None of the wild animals of Africa, 
however, suffer from its attacks, a fact which naturalists have not been able to 
account for. It is never met with outside of a small district near the centre 
of Africa, and even in this restricted region it is not always to be seen, even 
though there be domestic animals to attract it. 

There are yet other species of the fly which mine into leaves, burrow 
into fruits, and dig into the stems of plants. The cheese-mite is a pronounced 
black in color, and has the four hinder-legs yellow. From their power of leaping 
they are popularly called “ skippers.” Some mites live in wine, alcohol, or salt 
water. Some of them are roasted by certain tribes of Indians and are said to 
make a not unpalatable dish. 

The Flea, as a guerilla, is unrivalled; agility, caution, persistency—these 
amiable qualities does he employ to the discomfort of those whom he persecutes 
with his attentions. He is the foe of the household, for not content with covet¬ 
ing his neighbor and his neighbor’s wife, his son and his daughter, he insists 
also upon the pets of the household and some of the animals of the field. 
Troublesome throughout the United States, and specially numerous in sandy dis¬ 
tricts, it is yet far from being the pest which it is in France, Spain and Italy. 
Laying from eight to twelve eggs, these are hatched in the brief space of five 
days, and in fourteen days the small grubs pass into the stage of chrysalis ; 
after yet sixteen days more they spring forth, like Minerva, fully armed, and at 
once enter upon the duties of active life. Fleas have been trained to work in 
harness, but though able to draw one hundred times their own weight, their 
avoirdupois is too slight to have converted them into useful beasts of burden. 
The scientific name for the flea is pulex irritans. It is wingless, body com¬ 
pressed, eyes small and round, legs stout and strong. Its eggs are laid in the 
hair. The larval and pupal stages are each about fourteen days in duration. 
In the West Indies and in South America a species called the chigre (or jigger) 
causes great trouble by burying itself under the nails of the foot. There is also 
a species of chigre , common to this country, which burrows into the flesh, and 
though scarcely larger than a pin-point, is so poisonous as to produce intense 
irritation and great swelling of the parts bitten. If this insect were so large 
as a common tick, with an equal increase of venom, its bite would produce death, 
since nothing in nature is supposed to be more poisonous, and small as it is 
its burrowing has been known to produce a dangerous inflammation. 





by naturalists to illustrate the most varied principles of architecture, and to 
suggest designs not yet realized by man. A little circle of cells on the summit 
have the effect of stained glass windows of definite but unusual patterns. Then 
follow what might, be termed vestibule cells, since by their agency entrance is 
made for the fertilizing principle. Their shapes are varied, presenting the 
sphere, the hemisphere, the spindle, the sugar-loaf and many others. The pro- 


258 THE LIVING WORLD. 

BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. 

Butterflies, alike from their ever-varied form and coloring, are among the 
most commonly observed of the insect world. In their modes of passing the 
winter there is also great variety. Some exist solely as eggs, which early spring 
is to quicken into life; ’ others have already become butterflies , but without 
reaching maturity; yet others hibernate like the bears. The caterpillar wears 
his skeleton upon the outside, where, with its series of rings, it serves as a coat 
of mail. I11 this are nine pairs of openings connecting with tubes, and with 


admiral butterfly ( Vanessa atalanta). silver wing ( Argynnis paphia ). CHECKERED BUTTERFLY. 


them composing the organs of respiration. In addition to the metamorphosis 
which proceeds to the grub, thence to the chrysalis, and finally to the butterfly , 
the insect sheds its skin at least eight or ten times. The evolution of butter¬ 
flies as an order may save repetition, for peculiarities of the different species 
will then alone remain to be mentioned as these species pass in review. Begin¬ 
ning with the egg, we find this to be about as large as the head of an ordi¬ 
nary pin, with a shell thin and elastic. Even the forms of these eggs are said 


METALLIC WINGED. 


WHITE FLECKED. 


NIGHT MOTH 
(Noctua trape- 
sina). 



THE HIVING WORLD. 


259 




•cess within the egg is that already pointed out—the yolk separates into many 
distinct cells, and the germinal cells rise to the top. The future insect now 
begins to appear as a band rolled up, so that the ends (head and tail) meet. 
Finally, in a period sometimes as short as a few days, less frequently in a 
month, and rarely after hibernation, 
the egg is developed into the cater¬ 
pillar. Worm-like in appearance, it 
apparently consists of a head and of a 
body composed of successive rings— 
these rings being the skeleton of the 
insect. It has a pair of stout jaws 
which work sidewise. The mouth lies 
between the jaws and has secondary 
jaws ; it is further supplied with a 
slender tube, which serves as a spin¬ 
ning-wheel for the silk which the cat¬ 
erpillar is constantly making to render 
yet more secure its locomotion. The 
antennae are at the base of the mandi¬ 
bles and are furnished with a long 
bristle. The eyes are arranged in a 
curve, and the sixth one is placed some 
distance back of the others. The 
rings composing the body are thirteen 
in number, the three front ones fur¬ 
nishing support for the legs ; the third, 
fourth, fifth, sixth and thirteenth rings 
bear false or temporary legs. It 
respires by means of stigmata , which 
occur on each side of a segment, except the second, third, twelfth and thirteenth. 
The segments have a covering of hairs, the arrangement of which in the first three 

and in the last ten segments is different. 
On the under side of the body, included by 
the lower legs and the under lip, are the 
organs of scent and hearing. Moths are 
distinguished from butterflies by structure; 
the hind legs and wings in the moth are 
hooked together; the antennae are fern-like, 
instead of being turnip-shaped, as with 
the butterfly. 

The Admiral Butterfly has black, 
velvety front wings marked with scarlet 
and white ; the back wings are black. 
The eggs are ribbed so that their summits 
apollo butterfly. look like a succession of little hills. The 


PAPILIO BROOKEANA. 


thorax is very slight, and the middle segment carries the front wings and the rela¬ 
tively powerful muscles which must control them. The legs proceeding from the 
thorax, thin but jointed and strong, support the centre of gravity of the body. It 
builds its nest by fastening together the edges of a leaf, and sometimes uses what it 







26 o 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



POI/VOMMATUS PHL^SAS. 


WINDOW ILOT 
( Ihyrisfenes - 
trella). 


does not need for support as a temporary means of subsistence. It Hibernates 
until May or June ; the caterpillar takes about ten days for his transformation, 
and soon provides for a new family. 

The Many-Eyed Butterfly ( Polyommatus ) is copper-colored with eye-like 
spots. 

The Theckla ( Thecla betulce ), or Hair-Streaked, is found throughout the 

globe. Five hundred species have been 
classified. In coloring it represents every 
shade—orange, brown, blue, black, etc., 
and has a metallic lustre. 

The Aurora ( Anthocharis cardaminis ) 
has black-spiked, orange-red front wings; 
the under side of the hind wings is a 
moss-green. 

The White Flecked ( Vanessa C. 
album ) has tawny wings, black-spotted 
above, and brown or blue below, with a white spot resembling a 
capital C, a comma, or the Greek letter gamma. The showers of 
blood which sometimes fall in Europe are attributable to a red liquid 
which the butterfly exudes when migrating—not, as the superstitious 
peasants believe, to a special and portentous miracle. 

The Great Ice Bird (. Limenitis populi ) is a dweller in forests, and is 
notable for the height of its flight. 

The Metallic Wing (. Melitcea cinxia ) has brown-yellow and white check¬ 
ered spots; on the under side, bands of white and yellow. 

The Checkered Butterfly (. Melanargia galatea) has a soft, hair-like cover¬ 
ing, and the wings are beautifully checkered with colors of black and orange. 

The Swallow-Tailed (.Papilio 
machaon ) has wings of yellow and 
black, a black body, yellow beneath 
and on the sides, and the hind wings 
notched and prolonged into tails. 

The Apollo (. Parrassius apollo ) is 
found in Switzerland and in the Pyr¬ 
enees. Its wings are generally white, 
tinted with yellow ; lower wings have 
also crimson spots bounded by black 
rings ; fore wings are spotted with 
black. 

The Leaf Formed [PhyIlium sic- 
cifolium) has a striking resemblance 
to a leaf in its wings, legs and thighs. 

The Bee-Moths [Sesia apifumis ) take possession of cells in a bee-hive 
and feed upon the accumulations of others. The mordellidce similarly ensconce 
themselves in the nests of wasps, which do not attempt to expel the intruders. 
The bee-moth is sometimes called the poplar-moth. As a larva, it passes two years, 
during which it is even more destructive than when fully matured. It illus¬ 
trates adaptation to environment, since its jaw is suited for work upon the hard 
substance of the tree, and not simply upon its foliage. 



swallow-tail butterfly {Papilio machaon). 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


261 





The Cabbage-Moth ( Pcen ioca mpa gothica ) lays its eggs upon cabbages and 
turnips; it is the soft, white butterfly that wears the livery of innocence “ to 
serve the devil init represents another unwelcome European immigrant. 
The spring broods are darker in color, and thus attract less attention. The 
cabbage-moth destroyed in Canada during a single season a quarter of a mil¬ 
lion dollars’ worth of produce. The cabbage-moth spins a cocoon, and hence 
is sometimes 
called the 
spinning but¬ 
terfly. 

The Gam¬ 
ma E u 1 e 

{Pluria gam- 
ma) is a noc- 
turnal, or 

night-flier. It brown bear ( Arctia caja). silk-worm moth ( Botnbyx mori). 

takes its 

name from a silvery marking which resembles the Greek letter gamma, which 
is found upon the front wings. The caterpillar is green, with two yellow and six 
white lines. It hides its cocoon in a leaf which it rolls together for this purpose. 

The Pine- 
Moth ( Sphinx 
pinas in) was 
so named be¬ 
cause it fre¬ 
quently erects 
itself, when it has 
a striking resem¬ 
blance to the Egyp¬ 
tian sphinx. It is 
called also the 
hawk-moth, or the 
humming-moth. It 
is very destructive 
to pine forests, and 
has no respect for 
the age of the trees. 
At times in France 
a whole village will 
turn out by night 
and devote itself to 

the destruction of this ravager of the finest and most stately forest trees. 

The Hop Spinner (. Hepialus humuli ) is not an attractive insect, as it 
smirches itself in feeding. The male is white above and grayish-brown below; the 
female is light gold above and reddish-gray beneath. It flies in the early evening. 

The Twelve-Feathered Moth ( Alucita hexadactyla ) is found both in Europe 
and in America. It is ash color with brown markings. It feeds upon the 
honeysuckles and hibernates. It takes its name from the fact that each wing 
is divided into six lobes or feathers. 


3 . death’s-head moth. 19 . apple moth. 16 . gamma owl. 13 - Drepana falcataria. 



262 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


The Blood Drop ( Tygena lonicercz ) belongs to tropical climates. The 
tygena resemble the bee-moths. They are day-fliers, and as their cocoons are put 
under ground, they cover them with a varnish as a protection against dampness. 
Green Leaf ( Geometra papilionaria) is of great size and of equal destruc- 



spinning moth ( Liparis dispar ). night hawk ( Salumia pavonia). 



tiveness. Its common name is the measuring-worm , and hence it has been 
named the geometer, or surveyor. 

The Apple Winder ( Carpo-capsa pomonana ) occurs wherever there are 
apple orchards. The egg is laid in the undeveloped blossom, and the young 

caterpillars eat out the substance of 
the fruit before it matures. 

The Brown Bear ( Antia capa) is 
beautiful in form, and in appearance 
resembles the brown bear. The cat¬ 
erpillar is black-haired, and looks like 
a hearth broom. The moth has brown 
fore wings, irregularly marked with 
broad white lines, and the hind wings 
are a lighter brown, having a map 
of Africa about the centre, and three 
large black eyes in the margin. 

The Linden ( Smerinthas telice) is 
common to elms and horse-chestnuts. 
Its upper wings are a grayish-green, 
„ „ _ ^ banded; its banded thorax is gray. 

GREAT ICE BIRD. ^ J . 

The Death s-Head ( Acherontia 
atropos ) is found, in Europe, Asia and Africa. It is from four to five inches in 
length, brown fore wings ; hind wings yellow, banded with black. It feeds upon 
the tomato, potato, and similar vegetables. It has a skull-like mark on the thorax, 
and in flying emits a sound, whence it is regarded with superstitious veneration. 

Oak Leaf ( Tortrix viridanci) is green in color, and lays its eggs upon 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


263 



the leaves of the oak, which it pulls downward and backward. Their design 
is thus to provide concealment against the enemies which prey upon them. 

The Oak Eggar (.Lasiocampis quercus ) as a larva, hibernates. The male 
is chocolate-colored, with a yellow band in the centre, and a white spot on 
the wings; the female is a pale yellow. 


BEECH spinner (Stauropns fagi). 


SQUARE, VELVET-MOTH AND CATERPILLAR 
(Lilhosia quadra ). 


Beech Spinner (Stauropns fagi j irequents herbage, beeches and oaks. 

The Silk-Worm (Bombyx morz) was brought by monks to Constantinople 
about the middle of the sixth century. Before that time silk was imported in 
small quantities and at great cost from China, where the silk worm had been 



domesticated as 
early as 2700 B. 
C. For a long 
period the Greeks 
were the special 
European cultiva¬ 
tors of the silk¬ 
worm, until Italy 
wrested away its 
sceptre. From 
Italy, silk culture 
spread to Spain 
and France; in 
the latter country 
the production of 
the eggs is a large 
and well-recog¬ 
nized industry. 
The English have 
found their Indian 
possessions the 
nost satisfactory 


1. BEE-MOTH (Sesia apifomits). 9. nail 
blotted (Aglia tau). 15 - climbing-moth 
(Txniocampa gothica). 2. pine-moth 
(Sphinx pinastri). 


dace for their silk manufacture, and the Americans, while far behind their foreign 
ompetitors, yet have attained a reasonable success. 

Beginning with the egg, which at first is yellow, and later blue, the 
form, when hatched, is black. At the end of eleven or twelve days the worn: 
heds its skin, or rather peels itself, and appears as a white caterpilh . 



264 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


During exuviation, the larva changes its skin five times. It soon prepares 
to make its cocoon. On each side of the body are two slight vessels which 
secrete a yellow gum, which is drawn through the mouth in the form of 
threads. First making a foundation of irregular threads, it constructs upon 



LEMON BUTTERFi/v (Rhodocera rhamni). 



21. twelve-feathered moth (. Alucita 
hexadaciyla >. 7. hop spinner (He- 

pialus hutnuli). 


these a loose network of floss silk; finally it makes a firm yellow ball, the outside 
of which is smeared as a protection against the weather. After completing its 
task, it throws off its last skin and is metamorphosed into a chrysalis, which, 
at the end of a month, bursts forth as a moth, whose span of life does not 
exceed a few days. 

More fertile than rabbits, their families vary from two hundred to five 
hundred. They have stout, hairy bodies ; broad 
wings, which frequently are brilliant in coloring; 
lay upwards of three hundred eggs, and will 
feed upon the Osage orange equally as well as 
upon the mulberry. 

The Emperor Julius Caesar was a versatile 
and able man ; in oratory, inferior to Cicero alone; 
in military affairs, still supreme; in elegance and 
trustworthiness as an historian, unsurpassed; in 
political skill and forecast, without rival. Still, 
to the modern inheritor of the conquests of 
the past, Caesar appeals rather by his service¬ 
ableness, and among his benefits must be 
included not merely the reformation of the calendar, but the introduction of 
silk to the attention of the Romans, and consequently to the modern world. 
Fond of display, not so much for its own sake as for its political effect upon 
a wonder-loving, amazement-seeking people, he, at a cost which would have been 
incurred by no one but a Roman or an American, had constructed a silken 
tent, when the expensiveness of silk was proportionate to its rarity. This 
fabric was to become a necessity of human life, and to furnish employment for 


m 

m 
it 

iS 


oak leaf (Lasiocampa quercifolia ). 








THE LIVING WORLD. 


265 




the inventor, the mechanic, the busy brain of the designer, the unresting hand 
of the weaver, the various employes of commerce, transportation, the retail 
dry goods, millinery, and haberdashery callings, while it opened new avenues 
to those living and laboring upon the farm. 

As long ago as 1848, our importations of silk amounted to over five millions 
of dollars, with all the romance and life-sustaining power which a dollar, 
circulated from hand to 
hand, and from clime to 
clime, implies. Surely, 
the small must not be 
confounded with the in¬ 
significant, nor must one 
mistake his want of ac¬ 
quaintance with the popu¬ 
lous and varied world of 
insects, for any want of 
claim on its part to his 
most serious attention. 

An oak-feeding silk-worm 
has been imported and 
promises well. The 
cecropia will feed upon 
the more common fruit 
and shade trees. The 
ailanthus has also been 
imported, and has lessened 
the disfavor of the tree 
upon which it feeds. It may be remarked, in passing, that the American 
silk-worm proves a greater source of profit than the naturalized moths. Sor¬ 
ghum is invaded by the Nola sorghiella. 

The Humming-Bird Hawk-Moth is vari¬ 
ously colored ; its front wings are ashy-brown with 
three black wave-like lines ; the hind wings are of 
a rusty yellow. 

The Grain Butterfly (or Tinea granella ) is 
troublesome alike while the grain is standing in 
the field and after it has been stored in the barn. 

The Melon Caterpillar 
has iridescent white wings, 
with a broad band of purple 
or black on the outer margin. 

The Meal-Moth, or 
Flower-Moth (Asopiafarin- 
alis ), has front wings of 
yellowish-brown, bordered by chocolate-colored edges; the other wings are 
smoky-brown, marked by two irregular white lines and a row of spots along 
the edges of the wings. It is a frequent visitor to our supplies of meal, 
flour, etc. 

The Canker-Worm is greenish-yellow or brown, and has pale stripes on 


leaf butterfly ( Kallima paralecta ). 


larvae of clothes moth, clothes moth ( Tinea sarcitella). 









266 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


its sides ; their coloring enables them to imitate the twig so closely as often to 
escape detection. It destroys for food the leaves of fruit and shade trees. 

The Noctuidae turn night into day. The erebus odora is the largest 
American species. It is of a dark brown, speckled with gray, and its out¬ 
spread wings measure six inches. 

The Cotton-Worm Moth (Aletia argillacea ), though found throughout the 
United States, is destructive especially in the cotton-belt country. _ In spite of 
its gorgeous coloring (light brown, variedly olive and claret), it is a constant 
enemy, and does at least thirty million dollars’ worth of damage in the y ears 
when its ravages are greatest. 

The Single-dotted Sunlover (.Heliophila unipuncta ) is another army-worm 



whose devastations are formidable. 

The Io Moth is a large, showy insect; the 


males are distinguished by 
two purplish lines crossing, 
wave-like, a deep yellow; 
the hind wings are purple 
next to the body and at 
their extremities. The 
females have wings of pur¬ 
plish brown less distinctly 
marked by lines. The to¬ 
bacco-worm moth has gray 
hind wings, black-spotted 
at the base, and with two 
black bands in the middle 
and a grayish-black mar¬ 
gin ; the front wings are 
white spotted and gray, 
lined in black. The va- 
nessa io is a European 
moth admirable for its rich 
and varied coloring. Its 
reddish wings have eye- 
spots of mingled yellow, 
white, black, lilac and rose—combinations which produce a very beautiful effect, 
scarcely imitable by the painter’s brush. 


SILK WORM (NAT. SIZE), COCOON, BUTTERFLY AND PERFECT CATERPILLAR. 


ANTS AND BEES. 

The highest species of insect life is found in the order which embraces ants, 
wasps and bees, and with them we find those marvellous instincts which seem 
to be only unconscious reason. They have been used to point the advice of 
the moralist, and to inspire the song of the poet; they have multiplied the 
pleasures and occupations of mankind ; they attract by their commonness, interest 
by their intelligence, and illustrate with exceptional power the wisdom and 
providence of the Creator. To the students of evolution they offer, unusual 
opportunities ; to the lover of color, form, and to ingenious mechanism they furnish 
ever-fresh pleasure ; to the superstitious they have been the source of many a 
legend, and to the husbandman and man of commence they are an object of 
concern and of interest. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


267 





The Aculeatce include ants, wasps and bees. The ants are called Formicidce ; 
their eggs are elongated and yellowish white, and require about a month for being 
hatched. The larvae are little grubs, conical-shaped and without legs. They 
are classified by the nurses and changed from room to room as their necessi¬ 
ties demand. In a few months the larvae develop into pupae, and after three 
or four weeks into ants. The classes among ants have been thus described: 
“ The workers are without wings and ocelli, and the thorax is narrow. The 
males and females have wings and ocelli—the female shedding her wings after 
pairing. The female has but six segments to the abdomen, the male, seven. 
It is believed that at the pleasure of the ants a given egg may be developed 
into a queen or into a worker. Ants build in different styles and of various 
material; they live in a single dwelling, or form settlements; they dig tunnels 
and construct roads. In some parts of Europe they are protected by law because 
of their destruction of other insects.” 

Ants make their toilets either unaided or with the assistance of others, 
which use their legs as 
scrapers ; they teach not only 
the lesson of industry, but 
that of cleanliness in the 
person and in the dwelling. 

They never suppose that 
“ out of sight is out of mind,” 
and instead of allowing refuse 
to accumulate in their streets 
and alleys, at once remove it 
to a distance from which it 
cannot possibly poison their 
lives. 

The illustration on page 
271 shows the ants closing 
the entrance to their dwell¬ 
ing, immuring their queen. 

Military affairs display 
no special resort to strategy, 
but the formation of lines 
of battle, and the hand-to- 
hand contests in which attacking ants engage, show a martial ardor, courage, 
and a knowledge of the fact that where discipline is equal, the victory will fall 
to the most numerous. Their movements in battle are wonderful to see, mani¬ 
festing precision, strategy, and great courage, from which great generals might 
learn much contributive to the science of war. When the clash of battle occurs, 
however, ants are no longer regardful of the importance of concentrating their 
forces for simultaneous action, but follow up the fight in a now apparently 
disorganized body, each one acting independently. We therefore see them 
fighting in couples, while others are running off. with the captives they have 
made. These battles are always caused by the invasion of an ant hill, being 
the result of piratical enterprises, in which the invaders despoil their enemies 
for plunder and slaves, the latter being taken away in the larval state and raised 
up for servitude under the direction of females appointed for their training. 


blood drop (.Zygcena lonicercz). 4. lin¬ 
den moth (Smerinthus tines'). 20. Watch 
2# moth (Gallenia mellonella). 18. flour 

moth (Asopea farnialis). 17. green leaf (Geometra papi/ionaria). 


268 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


The ant, from its commonness, and the industry, intelligence and persist¬ 
ence which it exhibits, has long been the theme of writers. Still, as some of its 
supposed characteristics are mythical, it may be well to refer to peculiarities which 
it undoubtedly possesses. In the first place, Sir John Lubbock has established 
the fact that the ant dislikes many colors of the spectrum, avoiding violet, 
green and red. There would seem to be no evidence of the ant’s possessing 

the sense of hearing. It hunts 
by scent, not sight; it has re¬ 
markable powers of memory, 
especially in regard to direction. 
It would seem to be able to 
indulge in at least rudimentary 
reflection, as may be seen from 
the following anecdote: An ant 
having found an insect pinned 
to the ground, returned to its hill 
and again came forth attended by 
others. The insect having been 
removed, and therefore not to 
be found, it was again placed 
in the way of the ant, and the ant solicited the aid of its fellows; these would go no 
farther than to the entrance of their hill, evidently meaning to profit by their 
disappointing experience. Furthermore, ants have been proved to be able to 
recognize a member of their own family even when the stranger had been taken 
away in its larval period, and re¬ 
turned only after reaching maturity. 

The ant, however, displays curiosity, 
rather than sympathy, at any misfor¬ 
tune which may befall his fellows. 

Ants educate their young; they 
understand the economic value of 
the division of labor, so that they 
separate themselves into workers, 
soldiers, kings and queens ; they go 
to war, make slaves, keep cows (in 
the shape of certain aphides); attend 
to their toilets ; build cemeteries and 
fortify their dwellings. The for¬ 
mica refaseas enslaves the black 
ant, the formica sanguinea , for 
household purposes; in Brazil 
they use the leaf-bugs as beasts 
of burden; they make pets especially of some kinds of beetles. They cleanse 
themselves and each other by the use of their fore legs; they believe that 
life is not intended to be all work and no play, so they engage in wrest¬ 
ling, in games of hide and seek, and in other forms of active amusement. 
They build their cemeteries at a distance from their hills, though at times, if a 
stream pass through' their dwelling, they give their dead the burial of a sailor. 
Among the builders is the formica ccespitiim , which is a small black ant. 




phryganea, earva and adui/T ( Phryganea striata). 












THE LIVING WORLD. 


269 




1 .ARV/E OF THE ANT- 


Selecting by preference a stone or a tuft of grass, these ants hollow out a 
series of rooms with connecting galleries. They pile up earth, using the stems 
of the plant for supports, and being dependent upon water as a cement; in the 
absence of this they construct their buildings upon the principle of the arch. 
Preferring a circular form, these ants yield to necessity and use other shapes. 
The main rooms are given up to the 

pupae; others, dug below, are devoted to _«v ,j. 

the service of eggs and cocoons. The 
yellow ants occupy numberless cells com¬ 
municating with each other, and seem 
to pass much of their time in attend¬ 
ing to their larvae ; they do not at all object to the presence of the wood-louse, 
which seems to be a welcome guest. The brown ant (formica brunnea) is the 
most fastidious of builders, executing its work with the minute attention of 
the maker of mosaics, rather than with the larger care of the worker in brick 
and stone. They adapt their buildings to surrounding conditions, and thus teach 

man the folly of erecting pagodas 
under a winter sky. They support 
their roofs by columns which in per¬ 
fect mechanism and mechanical beauty 
rival the Ionic, Doric and Corinthian 
columns of human art. Our modern 
thirteen-storied buildings are outdone 
by theirs of forty stories. They 
build in equal proportions toward the 
sk}^ above and the water under the 
earth, for their object seems to be to 
secure the nicest gradations of tem¬ 
perature, so that their young shall 
lack nothing for their most perfect 
development. Not secreting wax, as 
does the bee or the wasp, the ant builds 
during rainy or humid seasons, so that 
the earth is thus united in the crevices 
and subsequently dried by the sun. 
Furthermore, the ant seemingly never begins its work without reflection, for it 
always avails itself of accidental aids, such as frag¬ 
ments of plants placed so as to assist in forming a 
roof, or materials making a good beginning for ver¬ 
tical walls. The common ant, or pismire (formica 
rufa ), is generally of a rusty brown, relieved on the 
head by black. The building materials it uses is infi¬ 
nitely varied. Beginning with a cavity in the earth, 
they first cover the entrance ; they next mine out police ant making an arrfst. 
halls and galleries which inter-communicate, and on 

ceasing the work of each day close the passages, so that love’s labor shall not 


be lost. 

The termite ant is not a true ant, but has derived its name from its appa¬ 
rent resemblance to the ant family, and from their living in mounds or hills. 








2JO 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



It makes its appearance as early in time as what the geologists call the coal- 
measures, and the termite of to-day has a well-authenticated genealogy, which 
puts to the blush those who date their family from so recent a period as the 
Norman Conquest. The termite is mostly an inhabitant of the tropics, but some 
species, commonly called white ants, are to be found everywhere, and inspire 
well-founded terror in the housekeeper and gardener. It mines its way through 
the world, and like the human miner, leaves nothing of the furniture or plants 
attacked except the excavation, or at best a thin covering which conceals the 
dangerous tunnel within. In India the ant has been known to thus mine the 
legs of tables, chairs and beds, and not to be discovered until the strength of 
materials was insufficient to support the customary weight. One species of the 
termite ant builds in trees or in the roofs of houses. The fixtures of a 

house become one of 
its most transient fea¬ 
tures, for the ant, by 
working from within 
outward, cunningly 
conceals his depreda¬ 
tions. Though not 
generally addicted to 
literature, they will 
verify the statement of 
England’s Lord High 
Chancellor, that some 
books are to be tasted, 
others to be digested. 

The nests of the 
termite ant are so 
many in number, and 
so great in size, as to 
produce the effect of 
villages of barbarous 
peoples. In form like 
a sugar-loaf (conical), 
ten to twenty feet in 


height, covered by a 


warrior termites ( Formes bellicosus ), soldier, workman, male, and 
female swollen with eggs. 

triple-r o o f e d dome, 

which is strong enough to support an ox. Within there are numerous apartments ; 
first, the royal chambers for the king and queen; then countless apartments 
used as nurseries ; yet again others which serve as magazines for storing food; 
and finally quarters for the soldiers and quarters for the laborers. At the 
beginning of the rainy season the winged ants appear, and from their number 
each colony selects its king and queen ; the rejected suitors, having no further 
mission in life, soon perish of neglect. The new king and queen are now 
immured in a cell, the entrance to which is too small to permit of their egress. 
Everything is theirs but freedom, for the wily ants do not trust their fortunes 
to the caprices of their monarchs, nor even to the accidents of parliamentary 
action, but act upon the belief that “ fast bind, fast find.” The queen lays at the 
rate of eighty thousand eggs a day, and the eggs, as fast as laid, are removed by 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


271 




the attendants to the incubator; after the eggs are hatched the young are brought 
up on the English nursery plan, though as soon as able they are compelled to 
join the workers. 

One species rolls itself into a 
ball as a protection against its enemy ; 
another emits an odor; still others 
display the tenacity of the bull-dog. 

Some build underground, some partly 
underground, and others in trees; 
the last tile their roofs. They lay 
out roads, sometimes make an arched 
covered way, excavate tunnels, and 
display great skill as architects and 
builders. They display the loftier and 
more ignoble passions of man, for 
some species do not dishonor a con¬ 
quered foe, and others maltreat their 
foes after their death; some species 
enslave others ; some are brave and 
pugnacious, others cowardly and 
thievish; some go forth singly, 
others move only in troops. 

The investigation of ant-life has immuring the queen. 

furnished a fresh illustration of the fact, that even though for a time the 
conclusions of the naturalist are different from the statements of Holy Writ, 
a larger knowledge will show the naturalist to be in error. Some species of 
the ant do not store up food for winter, but there are other species, such as the 
Texas ant , which has shown that the Bible is no less inspired in matters of 

entomology, than in those of re¬ 
vealed religion. 

The bees, wasps, ichneumon* 
flies, gall-flies, saw-flies, like the 
ant ) have mouths adapted to the 
double office of biting and sucking. 
They have two pairs of wings, which 
are nearly unveined membranes. The 
female is crowned with a sting, 
which sometimes is saw-like. These 
insects undergo complete metamor¬ 
phosis. The different species recog¬ 
nize the needs of the prospective 
larvae and provide them with food, 
warrior ants making a covered way. or special defence, if their nature 

requires such provision. They never 
mistake the conditions necessary for the development of their larvae; they 
select with the most unerring certainty the plant, or tree, or egg, or larva 
suited to the fertilization of their eggs and the prosperity of the yet unborn 
young; tliev provide, when necessary, for the proper nursery care and education 
of their offspring; they recognize the convenience of a division of labor, and 








272 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


waste no time in abortive attempts to change the lot assigned to them; they 
display statecraft, a knowledge of social economy, the qualities of thrift, and 
useful activity; are also acquainted with the arts of the architect, the builder, 
the mining engineer, the upholsterer, the house-decorator, the paper-maker, the 
embalmer, the soldier. They possess the senses of sight, hearing, smell; they 
are able to communicate with each other; they distinguish colors; they are 
able after the most lengthened separation to recognize members of their own 
community, even when this embraces a million of individuals and the returning 
prodigal left while still in the pupal stage. 

The Humble-Bee or Bumble-Bee {Bombas) is found everywhere. It was 
imported into Australia as a fertilizer. The queens hibernate, and in the 
spring found new colonies. She surrounds the eggs with a mixture of pollen 
and honey, upon which the larvae are to feed. At maturity the larvae spin a 

are then metamorphosed 
into pupae. The work¬ 
ers first reach full de¬ 
velopment, and at once 
relieve the parent of the 
care of providing for the 
family. In building, the 
bee uses such material 
as is most easily obtained, 
and shows great ingenu¬ 
ity in adapting the form 
of her dwelling to the 
necessities of the case. 

The Honey-Bee is 
the most important mem¬ 
ber of the bee family, and 
is deserving of the pop¬ 
ular interest in which it 
is held, since its product 
yields fifteen millions of 
dollars annually, and 
is rapidly increasing. 
The bees are easily distinguished as males, females, drones and workers. The 
male bee has at least one-fifth of its head occupied by large eyes, and the hind 
legs are slender at the base, and widen as they approach the top. The 
female and worker bees have elongated and lateral eyes, not joined together; 
the. wings have a marginal cell ; the hind legs are not spined. The queen 
is immured in a separate cell and waited upon by the workers, who omit no 
attention calculated to add to her comfort and pleasure. Her eggs, as fast as 
laid, are carried away by .watchful attendants and placed in other cells. As 
there is need for change in the conditions of incubation, the eggs are shifted 
to chambers selected with reference to the temperature required, and no hot¬ 
house gardener is more intelligent or more watchful. As soon as,a new queen 
is born the old queen, with a few devoted attendants, takes her flight and colo¬ 
nizes elsewhere. The bees seem to have the power of developing a worker, 
or sterile female, into a queen. The drones are produced not by the queen, 


silken cell, which the mother encases m wax, and 



TERMITE HILLS. 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


2 73 



but by the unfertilized queen bees, or by the workers. The wax-workers and 
the nurses are the two divisions of the working bee. The former is the 
builder and architect, as well as the one who provides honey for the honeycomb; 
honey thus stored up is not touched by the bees themselves, other receivers 
being provided for the supplies required for daily consumption. The wax-cells 
lie in a second stomach, which is never used for digestion. In the same 
manner as the various elements of human food are directed to the tissues, bones, 
muscles, etc., materials of which the bee can manufacture wax are separated and 
carried to the second stomach. It would be superfluous to dwell upon the sound 
mathematical and architectural princi¬ 
ples recognized in the construction 
of the comb and cells ; this wonder 
of the natural world has already been 
described at length by naturalists, 
moralists, and essay-writers. It sup¬ 
plies likewise a viscous, resinous, 
thread-like cement, which it employs 
mainly as the mason employs mor¬ 
tar ; but he also converts it into 
ropes, by which it may remove in¬ 
truding insects or troublesome sub¬ 
stances, and, as in the case of snails, 
uses it to safely tie an animal which 
it cannot remove; in the last case 
they embalm the corpse, not for the 
reason of the ancient Egyptians, but 
that its putrefaction may not embar¬ 
rass themselves. 

The form, color, scent and suc¬ 
culence of flowers is due entirely to 
the agency of insects ; without these 
workers, among whom the bee is 
chief, we should lose the delights 
furnished by plant life—the coloring, 
varied in hue and infinite in tone— 
the graceful and odd-shaped forms— 
the grateful perfume—the iridescence 
which represents the imprisoned sun¬ 
shine. The gum, out of which the bee 
makes its cement, is collected and 
carried in basket-like hollows in the 
middle of the hind legs. When a 
hive is about to be built, the bees . 
divide into sets of workers, whose labor is not shared by the other sets. Une 
body confines itself to the production of materials ; another works out the build¬ 
ing plan in the rough ; another examines, improves and perfects the structure. 
All the while another band is occupied in bringing provisions to the laborers, 
though they exclude such as, having their field of labor abroad, can forage tor 
themselves. The wax-workers suspend themselves in clusters, the lower ones 
18 


DWELLINGS OF THE GRASS ANT. 













274 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




fastening themselves to the legs of those above. Finally the “ founder bee ” chews 
and fastens his wax to a support and roughly marks out a cell; he then drops 
out of the crowd and is succeeded by one after another 
of the wax-workers. The form of the cell insures the 
greatest strength, together with the least waste of 
space or materials. A celebrated mathematician worked 
out the size of the angles made by a six-sided figure 
whose base is a concave triangular pyramid, and it was 
found to be that of the angles instinctively made by the bee. 
The males, being larger, are provided with enlarged 
cells specially constructed for their use. The out-door 
workers carry a honey-bag, and are faithful in delivering 
at the hive the honey collected; some cells are reserved 
wholly for storage. The eggs, having been enclosed 
in a cell, are, as has been said, looked after by the nurse- 
bees until the pupa appears; this is fed for six days and 
then closed up in a cell, whose walls it at once begins 
nest oe the poeystractis. to cover with tapestry, after which it is transformed 
into a bee, opens its cell and joins the older bees, who 
cleanse it, and put its room in order for another occupant. The young bee 
now begins the labor of life, and 
seems to regard work, not as a 
curse, but as a blessing perverted 
by man. The old bees now prepare 
to move them out and the young 
to leave the ancestral home. After 
the drones have fulfilled their 
special mission the working-bees 
fall upon them and slay them. 

The mason-bee builds against 
a wall and uses an earthen mor¬ 
tar; the ground-bee builds in the 
earth; the leaf-cutter uses leaves, 
which it varnishes red; the wall-bee 
builds a silken habitation in crevices; 
the carding-bee arranges itself in 
columns and passes from hand to 
hand (or from foot to foot) the 
moss which it uses in building. 

The Wasp is too pronounced 
a friend of our youth to be for¬ 
gotten; whatever may have been the 
stings of our outrageous fortune, the 
pain has passed and we can afford to 
consider the peculiarities and apti¬ 
tudes of our former enemy, who 
always obeyed the injunction “ when tree nest of the myomecodia. 

found, stick a pin in it.” The wasp 

masticates bits of bark until transformed into veritable paper pulp. Making a 








THE LIVING WORLD. 


275 



pillar in the highest part of the vault, they next provide a roof. As soon 
as the cells are ready the wasp begins to lay, and when the larvae appear they 
are fed by the parent. About the close of the larval period, the young line 
their cells with silk, and then undergo their 
metamorphoses into wasps. Unlike the bees, 
they frequently support one or two hun¬ 
dred queens. The wasp , like the bear, is 
fond of honey, which, however, he can 
obtain only by the plunder of bees. As 
supplies diminish the wasp puts to death 
the old, the infirm, the useless, and de¬ 
stroys larvae which have not arrived in time 
but been born out of season. The mason- 
wasp resembles the mason-bee in habits. 

It uses its feet as trowels and fastens and 
seals its door. The carpenter-wasp con¬ 
structs his home in timber; the tree- 
wasp deserts the ground ; there are species 


INTERIOR OF ANT NEST. 


DWELLINGS OF THE tapinoma. 

which are parasitic; some that are 
solitary. The wasp feeds itself upon 
the choicest fruit, and thus robs the 
nurseryman of his legitimate reward; 
it seizes with avidity upon meat, end 
thus annoys the butcher and the 
house-keeper; it does not hesitate to 
use its sting, and thus threatens the 
comfort of persons. 

We have now passed in review 
many of the more striking insects; 
we have seen their intelligence, indus¬ 
try, adaptation to the demands of their 
life, metamorphoses, and must have 
been convinced of the constant exer¬ 
cise of a wisdom not finite, and of 


a charity larger than that which belongs to man. For such insects as are dependent 
thereupon, the maternal instinct is strongly developed m the parent; for those which 
in the larval condition require provision of food, food is supplied ; for others it is not. 






AVES-BIRDS 


CONNECTION BETWEEN BIRDS AND REPTILES. 



FTER a consideration of reptilian life, which comprises the 
most dangerous and repulsive of creatures, doomed largely 
to crawl in the dust at the feet of their implacable 
foe since the gates of Eden were shut against man¬ 
kind, we approach the next order of animate crea¬ 
tion only to find a transition most remarkable, a 
true antithesis, yet connected by a chain in which 
none of the links are missing. How seemingly 
great is the chasm lying between the sinuous 
creeping, poisonous reptiles, and the bright plum- 
aged warblers, that g;o whirling through space, 
with every dip of wing a symphony of grace, 
while filling the air with a harmony that makes every 
wood musical, and every hedge an orchestra. How great 
the difference between the scale of the saurian and the 
gossamer, sun-tinted feather of the bird; or the threaten¬ 
ing hiss, croak or bellow of one, and the lute-like notes, the piping trill of woodland 
eloquence flooding the very world with melody, that is flung with generous praise 
from the throat of the other! Though these may be ever so widely divergent, 
the lines of separation are like an acute angle, the ends of which are far apart 
but converge again to a common centre. 

The characteristic features by which the three great divisions of animals, 
viz., reptiles, birds and mammals, are distinguished, are scales, feathers and hairs. 
Other points of difference exist in that feathered creatures possess a double circu¬ 
lation of the blood, which is single in reptiles, while the absence of a diaphragm 
and mammary glands, as well as the possession of a second stomach, the crop, a 
grinding organ and the gizzard, serve to separate birds from mammals. This 
separation from mammals is very much more distinct than are the character¬ 
istics which divide birds from reptiles. While the differences are strongly 
marked, there still remain several homologies that serve to unite birds with 
reptiles. In speaking of these connecting links, the English naturalist, Kingsley, 
thus writes: 


u * * * In these and other particulars, the birds show a near relation¬ 

ship to reptiles, so close, indeed, that they have been included with them in a 
separate group, called sauropsida; at any rate, birds are more nearly related to 
reptiles than they are to mammals, notwithstanding the beak of the duck-mole 
and the recent re-discovery of the fact that the echidna (porcupine ant-eater) lays 
eggs, and whatever was the origin of mammals, so much is certain, that they 

(276) 





AVIL C. O LlTri PH l LA 


LIVING SUNBEAMS AND FOREST CHORISTERS 












THE LIVING WORLD. 


277 


sprang from an ancestral stock with which birds are only remotely connected. 
Their position between reptiles and mammals in our linear system does not indi¬ 
cate any intermediate position in nature, but is simply due to our inability of 
expressing exact relationships. 

“ There are other features which frequently are attributed to the bird class 
as diagnostic, but which really are but of little account; for instance, the modifi¬ 
cation of the jaws into a beak sheathed with horn and destitute of teeth, for not 
only have the turtles and duck-moles similar beaks, but we know now that teeth 
were common in certain groups of extinct birds as they are in reptiles or mam¬ 
mals nowadays. Nor is the laying of eggs and their hatching an exclusive 
characteristic of the feathered tribe, for we have birds which leave the hatching 
to be done by the heat of decaying vegetable matter heaped upon them, while 
the latest indications are that the old report of the monotremes (of the duck-bill 
species) laying eggs, hitherto regarded as a fable, is substantially true. The 
so-called pneumaticity (hollowness) of the bird skeleton, or the peculiarity of the 
bones being hollow and filled with air through the canals, in connection with the 
respiratory organs, has also been regarded as belonging to birds only, but the 
bones of the extinct pterosaurians (winged lizards) and some other forms were 
also filled with air, air canals being present in nearly all the bones of skeletons 
of the larger species, while several recent birds, for instance the kiwis and pen¬ 
guins, are entirely destitute of pneumaticity in any part of the skeleton.” 


THE LINK THAT CONNECTS BIRD WITH REPTILE. 

Other species of extinct reptiles, such as the pterodactyls (wing-fingered, 
or wing-toed), and ramphorynchus (branch-beaked), might also have been 
cited by Mr. Kingsley as combining characteristics common to birds. The 
former, which was about the 
size of a swan, had the pow¬ 
ers of flight highly developed, 
though its structure was very 
similar to that of the bat. 

The latter, while possessing 
membranous wings, was only 
able to use them as a para¬ 
chute, by the extension of 
which it could leap from an 
elevation and sail a consid¬ 
erable distance on a descend¬ 
ing plane. Its size was equal 

to that of a crow, and in . 

many respects its structure was decidedly bird-like. The head and beak were 
those of a bird, except that the bill was long and armed with teeth, a provision 
no longer observable in any of the feathered tribe; but the breast and back 
were those of a bird, save that the extension of the back was vertebrated and 
terminated in a tail of considerable length. The combination of bird and rep¬ 
tile was strikingly illustrated in this curious creature, and well entitles it to 
being considered as the connecting link between the two. 

Though we have the strange anomaly before us of reptiles producing their 
young alive, and of at least two species of quadrupeds that lay and incubate 



THE RAMPHORYNCHUS. 


















278 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


their eggs, it is an invariable law among every species of bird that their repro¬ 
duction shall be by the deposition of eggs, yet, however, as seen above, all 
species do not incubate. 

HOW BIRDS SAIL THROUGH THE AIR. 

The most striking feature of bird physiology, as showing a marvellous 
creative design that impels our reverence for a wisdom so infinite, is found in 
the skeletal structure and wonderful form, substance and adaptation of the 
feathery covering, by which flight is rendered at once easy and natural. While 
the bones of all other animals now existent are solid, the centre being a cone 
of marrow, in birds there is extreme lightness without the sacrifice of strength, 
by the bones being hollow and braced, as it were, by numerous osseous capil¬ 
lary ducts, through which a circulation of heated air is in constant passage. 
We look with mingled surprise and wonder at the hawk, buzzard, and some 
other species, as they go sliding through the air with only an occasional flap 
of the wing, seemingly sustained by some invisible force, and propelled by an 
agency that appears difficult to understand. If one of these sailing birds be 
taken and submitted to certain experiments, including dissection, it will be 
found that the bones are not only hollow and extremely light, but that they 

are very warm to the touch. 
If the end of a wing be 
lopped off, and the bird’s 
windpipe closed, however 
tightly, it may still be seen 
to breathe with the same 
regularity as before being 
injured. By this experi¬ 
ment we are given to know 
that both heart and lungs 
are directly connected with 
all the bones, that the heart 
action is not confined to 
pumping blood, but that it 
also pumps air through all 
the bony channels and feath¬ 
ers ; this air is heated by the heart and then distributed through every canal, 
however small, in the entire skeleton. We find also that the normal temper¬ 
ature of birds is ten degrees greater than in mammals, and this normal tem¬ 
perature may be increased by at least ten degrees more, at the will of the bird. 
This produces a rarefaction of the air within the bones sufficient to give con ¬ 
siderable buoyancy, to which sustaining effect is added the lifting power whic 1 
resides within the feathers. This force is ill understood, but that it exists i, 
demonstrated by the fact that to divest the body of a bird of its feathers, though 
the wings may be left intact, destroys its power of flight. 

In addition to the knowledge gained by experiments which are occasionally 
cruel, having to be made while the bird is alive, is the striking contrast 
between birds of flight and those destitute of this ability. We know that the 
bones of domestic fowls are thicker and heavier than those of the wild species, 
and investigation has also shown that in such birds as the penguin, ostrich, kiwi, 







« 1 


DIFFERENT POSITIONS ASSUMED BY BIRDS WHEN MIGRATING, a. DUCKS, 
b. EUROPEAN IBIS. C. GEESE, d. CRANES, e. BUZZARDS, f. DIVERS, 
g. OYSTER-FISHERS, h. SAND-PIPERS. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


279 


and others which are unable to take wing, not only is the wing imperfectly 
developed, but the bones are almost solid, a fact which operates to confirm the 
theory here advanced, or at least lends great plausibility to it. 

Next to the feathers, in point of wonderful adaptation and structure, is 
the eye of a bird, and in this, too,, we observe another analogy, or correspond¬ 
ence, with reptiles. In all mammals the eye is protected by a double lid, an 
upper and a lower, but in birds there is a third lid, technically called the 
nictitating membrane. This so-called lid is controlled by a muscle united to it 
at the outer corner of the cornea, by which the membrane may be drawn quickly 
across the globe of the eye and back again, by which motion the eye is kept 
moistened and clear of foreign substances, as is done by the winking of the lids 
in mammals. This nictitating membrane is noticeable in the eye-structure of 
a large number of reptiles, but is never present in fishes, insects or mam¬ 
mals. By this provision the vision of a bird and of the reptiles that possess it 
is rendered much more acute and superior to that of man. 

As classification is much a matter of individual or arbitrary arrangement 
—beyond the confinement of species under appropriate heads—we will preserve 
a consistency in the general plan of this work by introducing, not what can be 
called the lowest orders, for all are equally perfect, but by first describing the 
smaller species, and maintaining a gradual ascent from the least to the greatest, 
in which respect it will bear the semblance at least of progression, if not develop¬ 
ment. Under this arrangement, therefore, we will first introduce the 

TROCHILID.®, OR HUMMING-BIRDS. 

It is a matter for some wonder that humming-birds are confined exclusively 
to the Western Continent, particularly since their range of latitude is almost 
equal to that of North and South America. The species are very numerous, some 
of which may be found widely distributed, while others are restricted to a single 
locality less than a dozen miles in diameter. This variable distribution is due 
to the fact that those of widest range are swift of wing, and can sustain them¬ 
selves in a long flight, while those whose habitat is circumscribed are feeble, 
have short wings, and are otherwise incapable of wandering any considerable 
distance. 

Wherever found, the humming-bird , so called from the whirring sound pro¬ 
duced by its wings, is a creature that excites our admiration as being com¬ 
parable to an animated flower. Not all have gorgeous plumage, but the delicacy 
of structure, and the gracefulness with which they poise above a flower, when 
extracting the nectar from its chambers; the manner in which they flit from 
bloom to bloom, or dart off like a bee in arrowy flight, bearing away in their 
crops a drink upon which the gods were once believed to regale themselves, is 
a habit peculiar to the several species. 

In the British Museum is a collection of every known species of humming¬ 
bird , more than four hundred in number, but the total number of specimens 
there shown is perhaps half a million, a very large wing of the building being 
entirely donated to these beautiful creatures. 

Though we generally observe these birds hovering amid the flowers, honey 
is not their only food, for experiments have shown that none of the genus can 
subsist without at least an occasional diet of insects—spiders and flies being their 
preferable animal food Some of the least attractive species seem to live chiefly 


28 o 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


off insects, for I have many times watched them sitting upon a perch, usually 
the limb of a tree, from whence they would dart off to seize passing flies, mos¬ 
quitoes, or even small case-winged insects, and these species not only exhibit 
a carnivorous appetite for a day, but may be seen about the same spot watch¬ 
ing for prey in this manner day after day. Some few species emit several notes, 
and one South American habitant is said to sing sweetly, but generally they give 
forth only a single low twit , except when fighting, when they produce a sharp 
twittering noise. Small as the humming-bird is, he is a fearless and pugnacious 
creature, not only quick to attack one of his kind, but equally prompt to avenge 
himself upon the largest birds of prey. 

The male hummer is much more gaudily clothed than his more modest 
mate, in which respect the male of all birds excels the female. The nests which 

they construct are at once mar¬ 
vels of structure and comfort, 
though some are scarcely larger 
than a walnut shell. Their shape 
is usually cup-like, and lined with 
some very soft material, while 
not infrequently there is some 
effort at exterior ornamentation, 
by the tasty addition of lichens 
and mosses attached by cobwebs. 
The place selected is usually a 
pendant bough or the side of a 
large leaf, though some even 
select the shelf of a rock. Pro¬ 
fessor Jamison, of Quito, men¬ 
tions having seen a nest attached 
to a piece of suspended rope, and 
that as the weight of the nest 
being upon one side threw it out 
of perpendicular, the bird over¬ 
came this defect by carrying 
stones with which it weighted 
the other side until the equi¬ 
librium was restored. 

The number of species is so 
large that a volume would be 
can at best only introduce some of the 
more striking specimens of the genera, though these will be sufficient to 
excite anew our interest and admiration in this, at once the daintiest and 
prettiest of God’s creatures. 

The Ruby Throat (Trochilus colubris ) is the most common species found 
within the United States, for nearly all these living sunbeams have their homes 
in Mexico, Central and South America. The ruby is therefore hardly to be 
compared for beauty with many of the much more charming species of the 
equatorial regions, but he is a most fascinating elf withal. The ruby rarely 
arrives from his southern home before the middle of April, and his coming may 
be looked upon as a sure sign that the chilly days are over. The name ruby 



NEST OF THE SWORD-BEAK. 


required to describe them all, hence 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


281 


lias been given as a distinguishing mark, because of the ruby red feathers that 
cover his throat. The back presents a scintillating sheen of gold and iris hues, 
while the tail feathers are of a purplish, steel color. But the colors of all the 
gayest plumaged hummers are variable, changing with every change of position 
or angle of the sunlight that falls upon them. 

This refulgent property of the feathers is due, as Woods says, to certain 
minute furrows which 
are traced upon the 
surface, and are anal¬ 
ogous in their mode of 
action to the delicate 
lines which give to 
nacre (the interior of 
a shell) its peculiar 
iridescent splendor. 

The ruby throat , 
though scarcely more 
than two inches in 
length, exhibits upon 
occasions the most 
reckless courage and 
bravado. He is up in 
arms against every 
living thing that dares 
to invade his sanctu¬ 
ary, having been fre¬ 
quently seen attacking 
a hawk or eagle with 
fiery fury, and while 
perched upon the 
great bird’s head driv¬ 
ing its keen little bill 
with savage force into 
its enemy’s eyes and 
neck. Though of a 
peculiarly vengeful dis¬ 
position towards all 
other birds, the ruby 
is more easily tamed 
than perhaps any other 
wild creature. When 
first taken it simulates 
death, but will soon RING-NECK humming-bird ( Typhcena Duponti). 

respond to gentle treat¬ 
ment, and the moment it shows any activity will begin feeding from the 
hand of its captor, and has been known to return for several seasons to the 
congenial home where it was once held a captive. The ruby builds its nest 
about the first of May and lays but two eggs, which are as many weeks in 
hatching. It is said that nearly all species of humming-birds raise two broods 









282 


THE LIVING WORLD, 


each year, but in this respect I do not think the genera differs from other 
birds, as all depends upon the length of the season. 

Flag-tailed Sylph (.Steganurus underwoodii ) is a species whose special 
habitat is near the equator, but its range is as far north as Jamaica, consider¬ 
able numbers being 
found about a district 
on that island known 
as Bluefield Ridge, 
where every tree is cov¬ 
ered with creeping flow¬ 
ers, thus providing a 
great attraction for 
these dainty creatures. 
The name flag-tail has 
been given to this spe¬ 
cies because of two very 
long feathers that form 
the tail, which, how¬ 
ever, are not so hand¬ 
somely colored as the 
plumage on its body. 
The back of this bird 
is of an emerald sheen, 
the wings a dark pur¬ 
ple, and the throat and 
breast a brilliant green. 
Its length is some ten 
inches, of which the 
tail comprises at least 
seven inches. 

The Sword Bill 
(Dochnastes ensifer ) is 
found principally at ex¬ 
treme elevations along 
the equator, the region 
about Quito being its 
favorite haunt. It is 
provided with a bill 
of extraordinary length, 
in which we again ob¬ 
serve a wonderful de¬ 
sign and adaptation, as 
the bird draws its sus¬ 
tenance almost entirely 
from the corollas of the 
brugmansiae and other 

species of the trumpet flower. A bill of extreme length is therefore abso¬ 
lutely essential, since by no other means could it reach the nectar which lies 
at the bottom of the deep cups. The sword bill is very handsomely clothed in 



emerald humming-bird (Chlorostilbon prasinus). 
















THE LIVING WORLD. 


283 



plumage extremely iridescent with emerald, purple and bronze that change in 
hues with every movement of the bird. 

Crimson Topaz ( Topaza pyra ) is confined to the extreme north of South 
America, and is a very beautiful creature, as the name implies. The body is 
of a deep crimson, the main tail feathers bronze, from which issue two very 
long feathers of a purplish green. 

It is semi-nocturnal, and being also 
extremely shy, is not often met 
with. 

The Topaz ( Topaza pella ) is 
perhaps the most gorgeously beau¬ 
tiful of all the genera, probably 
exceeding in this respect the spe¬ 
cies just described. It, too, is a 
habitant of northern South Amer¬ 
ica, but ranges somewhat nearer 
thi equator than the topaza pyra . 

The color is a flaming scarlet on 
the back, while the head and neck 
feathers are of a deep velvet black, 
presenting a most charming con¬ 
trast. The throat is an emerald 
green, which fades to a light opal¬ 
ine hue towards the tail coverts, 
reappearing again in a bright green 
with an orange gloss, while two 
long tail feathers of a greenish- 
purple complete the royal wardrobe 
of this fairy among the flowers. 

Its size, being about eight inches 
in length, entitles it to rank among 
birds belonging to larger classes, 
except for the characteristics which 
bind it to the trochilus species. 

The Trailing Sylph (Spar- 
ganurci) is sometimes called the 
Comet of Sappho , and also bar¬ 
tailed. Its home is Bolivia, where 
it haunts the gardens and orchards 
through the summer, and retires 

to eastern Peru when the winter GROUP OF HU m M ing-birds flag tailed sylph, topaz hum- 
season appears. It is specially dis- ming-bird, trailing sylph, sword beak, brilliant elf. 
tinguished for the prolongation of 

its tail feathers, which are of a fiery red tipped with a velvet black band. The 
general color of the body feathers is a sheeny green, with bronze hues on the 
neck, and a crimson red on the lower back. The term comet has been applied 
to it on account of the extraordinary velocity of its flight and the darting, 
eccentric motions it frequently indulges in. 

Brilliant Elf (Lophornis ornatus ), or tufted coquette , is a rather rare species 


284 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


•occasionally met with in northern Brazil, and is of most diminutive propor¬ 
tions, scarcely exceeding two inches in length. The crest with which its head 
is ornamented is a rich chestnut-brown color, the back a bronze green, wings 
a purple black; while a broad band of white crosses over the lower part of the 
back. From the neck project plumes of snowy white, the ends of which are 
tipped with bright green. 

Spangled Coquette ( Lophornis regincs ) is the name of another species 
very similar to the lophornis ornatus , differing little in color, but has the 
power of elevating or depressing the crest upon its head, which the former 
does not possess, a faculty which greatly increases its value as a curiosity 
among naturalists. 

Horned Hummer, or Double-crested ( Trochilus cornutus ), is also a South 
American species, ranging between the Amazon and Parana rivers. It is 
small in size, but of exquisite plumage, and distinguished for having a fan¬ 
shaped tuft of parti-colored feathers growing out from either side of the head. 
The back feathers are iridescent with hues of burnished gold and copper, 
while the breast is changeable with tints of emerald and ruby, and the long 
tail feathers are a pale yellow. 

The Sparkling Tail ( Trochilus dupontii ) inhabits Mexico and some parts 
of Central America, where it has an affection for flowers in cultivated gardens. 
It is extremely small, and the two eggs which it lays are scarcely larger than peas, 
and of a pearly white. The nest is always made upon a slight twig, or the 
underside of a large leaf, to which it is made to adhere by the use of a glutin¬ 
ous substance and spiders’ webs. This tiny bird is gorgeously bedecked with 
bronze-green feathers on the back, and a crescent of white crossing at the 
base of the tail. The tail is long, swallow-shaped, and the feathers are of 
velvet-black, tipped with white. 

Conver’s Thorntail ( Goldia conversi) is peculiar to the region about 
Bogota. It is also a small species remarkable for great speed on the wing. 
The color is green with a bar of white running across the lower back, which 
presents a striking contrast. The tail, however, is its most distinguishing 
feature, from the shape of which (resembling sharp-pointed, radiating spears) 
the name thorntail has been given. These feathers are shining black, while 
the shafts are white, as are also the tips. 

The Flame-Bearer ( Selasphorus scintilla ) has several features resembling 
those observable in the last species described. The tail feathers are rich in 
color, but short and spike-like. On the throat is a tuft of feathers of a fiery 
red color, from whence the name has been given. But more singular than its 
appearance is the fact that this species inhabits the inner side of the 
extinct volcano Chiriqui, New Grenada, where a luxurious vegetation is now 
found. 

Black Warrior (Oxypogon lindenii). This is quite a large species, and 
its haunts are at elevations where snow and ice may nearly always be found. 
They are somewhat remarkable for the long, pointed crest which gracefully 
swells upward from the base of the beak, and a flowing beard of delicate 
feathers. Concerning this interesting creature, Mr. Linden, the discoverer, says: 
“ I met with this species for the first time in August, 1842, while ascending 
the Sierra Nevada de Merida, the crests of which are the most elevated of the 
eastern part of the Cordilleras of Columbia. It inhabits the regions immediately 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


285 


below the line of perpetual congelation, at an elevation of from 12,000 to 13,000- 
feet above sea-level. It occasionally feeds upon the thinly scattered shrubs in 
this icy region, but most frequently upon the projecting ledges of rocks near 
the snow. Its food appears principally to consist of minute insects.” 
Another species (O. guerenii), very like that described by Linden, is found at 
the high altitudes of the Columbian Andes. The coloring of neither is very 
brilliant. 

Avocet Hummer ( Trochilus recurvirostris ) is the name of a species 
inhabiting Guiana, remarkable for the shape of its bill, which turns upward at 
the point, like that of the Avocet, after which it is called. On account of its 
comparative rarity, or residence within the deepest forests, very little is known 
of its habits. Swainson suggests, as a cause for this singular recurvation of 
bill, that the bird’s principal sustenance may be drawn from the bignoniee and 
similar plants, whose corollas are long and generally bent in their tubes; the 
nectar, being 
at the bottom, 
could not be 
reached read¬ 
ily either by a 
straight or in- 
curved bill, 
though very 
easily by one 
corresponding 
to the shape of 
the flower. 

The species is 
uncommon. 

The Sickle 
Bill (Trochilus 

n n u 1 1 n \ nrp TROCHILUS ANNA, AND CURVED-BEAK OR HORNED HUMMER AND SPARKI.ING TAIL. 

Lt LV L L LL ] pic- AVOCET 

sents a feature 

equally as curious as that observed in the foregoing species. Instead of the 
bill turning upward, however, it makes a sharp turn downward, which gives 
to it a sickle shape, hence the name. Like the previous species, too, it is 
very rare and little understood; whenever found it has always been at an ele¬ 
vation of at least ten thousand feet above sea-level. 

The Trouser, or Puff-Leg (T. cupreoventris) , is also an altitudinous 
dweller, being rarely found below nine thousand feet, and is confined to a very 
narrow strip of ground in the Andean regions. It is small in size, but of a 
most exquisite appearance, with head, neck and back washed with shining- 
green, and toward the tail coverts a metallic lustre; the wings are a blending 
of brown and purple, and the tail black, with purple gloss. The abdomen is of 
a coppery lustre, from which fact it is scunetimes called the copper-bellied puff- 
leg; but the most curious feature about this bird, and from which the more 
popular name is derived, are the puffs of white down, very much resembling 
the toilet puff-ball, which envelop the legs and thighs, imparting a most 
singular appearance. 

The White-Booted Racket Tail (Spathura underwoodii ) very much 



286 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




resembles the previous species, the coloring being nearly identical, and the 
puff-legs present, but it differs in possessing a bifurcated tail, with two greatly 
elongated feathers that terminate in spatulate tips. It is comparatively plentiful 
about Bogota. Its flight is swift and arrow-like, and on the wing it is the spirit 
of grace and loveliness. 

Star Throat, or Angel Hummer (71 angelus ), is found in nearly every 
part of Brazil, though at no place does it seem to be common. The bill of 
this species is very long, to enable it to reach the bottoms of the llianas flowers 
to extract the nectar, but it also catches insects. The plumage is very 
beautiful, the head being a metallic green, which changes under reflection to 
ultramarine, blue and gold. The back is of a golden sheen, and the wings 
and tail a variable purple-black and seal-brown. The gorget, or centre of the 
throat, is a brilliant crimson, edged with feathers tipped with blue, and on each 
flank is a tuft of white feathers. 

The White Cap (71 albocoronatus) is one of the smallest of humming¬ 
birds, and being quite rare, few naturalists have had an opportunity to study its 

habits. M r. 
Gould, who 
has devoted 
much time to 
an investiga¬ 
tion of the 
habits of all 
the genera, 
writes thus 
concerning 
the white cap: 
“ It was in the 
autumn of 
1852, in New 
Granada, that 
I obtained sev- 
eral speci¬ 
mens of this 
diminutive 

ANGEL HUMMER, OR STAR THROAT. WHITE CAP AND MAGNIFICENT SUN ANGEL. Val "i e ty of the 

humming¬ 
bird family. The first one I saw was perched on a twig, preening his feathers. 
I was doubtful for a few moments whether so small an object could be a bird, 
but on close examination I convinced myself of the fact and secured it. 
Another I encountered while bathing, and for a time I watched its movements 
before shooting it. This little creature would poise itself about three feet or 
so above the surface of the water, and then as quick as thought dart down¬ 
wards so as to dip its diminutive head in the placid pool, and this action it 
continued so rapidly that the water was kept constantly stirred.” 

The Magnificent, or Sun Angel (71 magnificus ), is one of several species 
that are found in the Andean range, and, with all its genus, is distinguished 
for the royal ornamentation of its raiment. Of this particular species, Mr. 
Gould thus writes : “ I regard this as the most beautiful and charming of the 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


287 


genus heliangelos. It lias all the charms of novelty to recommend it, and it 
stands alone, too, among its congeners, no other member of the genus similarly 
colored having been discovered up to the present time. The throat vies with 
the radiant topaz, while the band on the forehead rivals in brilliancy the frontlet 
of every other species.” On account of the remarkable beauty of this little 
feathered gem, thousands are killed every year by means of blow-guns, and 
their skins sent to all parts of the world and used for ornamental purposes. 


BIRDS OF PARADISE. 




As the humming-bird is found only on the Western Continent, nature has 
compensated for this seeming partiality by giving to the eastern world a species 
which have received the very appropriate designation of Birds of Paradise , no other 
expression being 
discoverable that 
would convey so 
excellent an idea 
of their transcen¬ 
dent, yes, mar¬ 
vellous beauty. 

It may at first 
glance appear 
somewhat singu¬ 
lar that these 
charming crea¬ 
tures should be 

limited to not trouser or puff eeg, and scimetar biuu. 

only a small 

district, but that this circumscribed region should be at once the wildest and most 
inaccessible, and therefore least liable to come under the dominion of civilized 
man. But this seems a wise provision, when we consider with what cruelty and 
reckless disregard men destroy the most beautiful 
birds to satisfy the condemnable pride of the age. 
Every lady’s hat must be decorated with the head or 
wing of some forest warbler or animated sunbeam, while 
the pseudo-naturalist is not less remorseless in estab¬ 
lishing his collection ; so with net, trap, blow-gun, arrow, 
bird-lime and shot, the destruction goes on, and every 
year the woods are less resonant, the flashing luminaries 
of lambent wings are fewer, and melody that once woke 
the echoes over upland, meadow and deep tangled forest 
is dying away, until it is now like the strains from an 
instrument with nearly all the strings broken. 

Fortunately, therefore, the most beautiful birds have 
„ their haunts in the wildest districts of the tropical world, 

BOLD HONEY-SUCKER. . . , , J . . r AT A . ,, ’ 

and it is m the unexplored interior 01 New Guinea that 
the most exquisite of sun-birds are to be found. The species, however, are not 
numerous, and this fact, added to the deep seclusion of their unfamiliar haunts, 
has prevented such study of their habits as would afford the knowledge all 
naturalists are anxious to possess, considering, as they do, this genera to be 
the most interesting of bird creation. 






288 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




The Bold Honey-Sucker {Nectarinia metallica) has been classed among" 
the sun-birds on account of its resplendent plumage, but its general character¬ 
istics are at variance with those of the genera, who appear to be confined 
entirely to the Malayan Peninsula and the Oceanic Islands. The honey-sucker 
is a habitant of north-eastern Africa, small of size, but gorgeously bedecked, and 
distinguished also for the two long feathers of the tail that trail after the flying 

bird like parallel rays of irides¬ 
cence. The head, neck and mantle 
are of a refulgent green, the 
rump and throat a purplish-blue 
and the belly a reddish-yellow. 

Beautiful, or Legless Bird 
of Paradise (Paradisea apodb ), 
is found only in the Malay Ar¬ 
chipelago, and no intelligent ob¬ 
server has reported it outside of 
New Guinea. The name legless 
was applied by the earliest voy¬ 
agers to these still comparatively 
unknown shores out of respect 
for the belief among the neigh¬ 
boring islanders that the sun- 
birds spent all their time in 
the air. This idea w r as further 
beautiful, or legless bird of paradise. perpetuated by Malay traders, and 

also by the Portuguese, who fre¬ 
quently bartered with the natives for the skins of these birds, to which the 
legs were never attached. They therefore called them 
birds of the sun. John von Linschoten, a learned Dutch 
naturalist, gave to them the name Paradise birds in 1598, 
and in writing of them says : “ No one has seen these 
birds alive, for they live in the air, always turning 
toward the sun, and never lighting on the earth until 
they die; for they have neither feet nor wings, as may 
be seen by the birds carried to India, and sometimes to 
Holland.” 

About the year 1700, the historiographer of the Dampier 
Expedition, William Funnel, mentions having seen speci¬ 
mens of these birds at Amboyna, and was told by the 
natives that they came to Banda among the nutmeg 
groves, where they, feasting off the fruit until becoming 
intoxicated, would fall senseless to the ground and expire. 

The species P. apoda was named by Linnaeus in 1758, 
and he seems to have cherished the tradition that the paradise widow and beard- 
bird was without legs, as the name implies. More recent «?Ja) NCH ^ Amadina f as - 

and reliable knowledge concerning the species has been 

obtained by Wallace, Rosenberg, D’Albertis and Beccari. We now know that the 
P. apoda is the largest of the sun-birds, measuring in length of body about 
eighteen inches. The color of the back is a rich seal-brown, running into a 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


289 



velvet violet on the breast. The head and neck are of a bright straw-color, 
while the throat is of an emerald green extending to the eyes. A marvellously 
beautiful velvety band of deep green extends across the forehead, with ends 
resting over the eye tipped with yellow. Beautiful as are these blending colors, 
the chief glory of this magnificent bird is in its enormous tail, which is fully 
thirty-six inches long. The feathers with which it is so royally endowed spring 
from both sides of the body in a graceful sweep and fall in delicate gossa¬ 
mer of golden orange, 
with tips of pale brown, 
presenting the appear¬ 
ance of a shower of 
gold flakes. 

Paradise Widow 
(Vidua paradisea ) is a 
habitant of Western 
Africa, and not nearly 
so large as the pre¬ 
ceding species. On ac¬ 
count of its splendid 
plumage the name 
incomparable bird has 
also been given it. 

The body decoration is 
most lustrous, with 
sheens of deep brown, 
black, and b u ff and 
white on the abdomen. 

Like the former spe¬ 
cies, the tail consti¬ 
tutes the most mag¬ 
nificent feature about 
it, though unlike the 
former the tail consists 
of only two scimetar- 
shaped feathers that 
are nearly two feet long, 
while above these shafts 
are two other shorter, 
paddle-shaped feathers, the ends of which are denuded, the points of the quills 
projecting. The widow-bird builds a curious nest of vegetable fibres of a 
downy softness, which is divided into two compartments, in one of which the 
male sits on guard while the female occupies the other with her eggs or brood. 

The Shaft-tailed Widow, or Widdah Bird (Vidua reglia), is another African 
species similar in appearance to the former, though not so large, and the tail, 
instead of having two broad feathers, is ornamented with four very slender 
shafts springing as central feathers from the true tail. Both species are fre¬ 
quently seen in European aviaries. 

The Lyre Bird (.Menura superba) is commonly classed among the wrens, but 
a glance at the illustration will serve to convince the reader that it belongs to the 

19 


WIDDAH FINCH, OR WIDOW-BIRD. 










290 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



paradise species, since appearance, rather than habits, is considered in the classifi¬ 
cation of the paradisea genera. This magnificent bird is native to New South 
Wales, and its range is restricted to the region lying between Port Phillip and 
Moreton Bay, where it is said to be fairly plentiful. Of this elegant bird Mr. 
Bennett writes: “I first saw these birds in the mountain range of the Turn at 
county; lately the}' have been very abundant among the Blue Mountain ranges 
thirty-five miles from Sidney. They are remarkably shy, very difficult to 
approach, frequenting the most inaccessible rocks and gullies, and on the slightest 
disturbance they dart off with surprising swiftness through the brakes, carrying 
their tails horizontally; but this appears to be for facilitating their passage 
through the brush, for when they leap or spring from branch to branch as they 

ascend or descend a tree the 
tail approaches the perpen¬ 
dicular. On watching them 
from an elevated position, 
playing in a gully below, 
they are seen to form little 
hillocks or mounds, by 
scratching up the ground 
around them, trampling and 
running flightily about, utter¬ 
ing their loud, shrill call, 
and imitating the notes of 
various birds.’ 

The nest of the lyre¬ 
bird is a large, loosely built, 
domed structure, composed 
of sticks, roots and leaves in¬ 
terwoven, and is oven-shaped, 
with the entrance in front. 
The lining is of down or 
other soft substance. A pe¬ 
culiarity of this bird is found 
in its reluctance to take flight, 
for though perhaps the' most 
timid of birds, it trusts almost 
entirely to its legs to con¬ 
vey it beyond danger. As a 
runner it probably has no equal, and as its haunts are in the densest coverts, 
into which it can plunge out of sight almost upon the instant, a sight of the 
bird is not easily gained. The color of this bird is dull and by no means in¬ 
viting, but the shape of its tail is magnificently beautiful, resembling nothing 
so much as a lyre, from whence the name is taken. Though not a songster, 
it has the power of imitation very greatly developed, being able not only to 
mimic birds, but certain animals also. 

Bird of the Gods (.Epimachus magnus ) is the name given to one of the 
most superbly beautiful paradise species inhabiting New Guinea. The body is 
small, but the tail feathers are so long that from point of beak to- tip of tail 
the length is four feet. To quote from Mr. Lesson: “To add to the singu- 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


291 



larity of this bird, nature has placed above and below its wings feathers of an 
extraordinary form, and such as one does not see in other birds; she seems, 
moreover, to have pleased herseli in painting this being, already so singular, 
with her most brilliant colors. The head, neck and belly are glittering green; 

the feathers which cover 
these parts possess the lus¬ 
tre and softness of velvet 
to the eye and touch ; the 
back is changeable violet; 
the wings are of the same 
color, and appear, accord¬ 
ing to the lights in which 
they are held, blue, violet, 
or deep black, always, how¬ 
ever, imitating velvet. The 
tail is composed of twelve 
feathers, the. two middle 
ones the longest, and the 
lateral feathers gradually 
diminish; it is violet or 
changeable blue above and 
black beneath. These 
feathers shine with the 
brilliancy of polished metal. 

“ The feathers above the 
wings are of the color of 
polished steel, changing into blue, terminated 
by a large spot of brilliant green, and form¬ 
ing a species of tuft or appendage at the mar¬ 
gin of the wings. Below the wings spring 
long curved feathers, directed upward; these 
are black on the inside and brilliant green 
on the outside. The bill and feet are black.” 

Twelve-thread* Plume Bird (E . a/bus ) 
bears some resemblance to the previous spe¬ 
cies, especially from the shoulder of the wings 
forward, and inhabits the same region. The 
body color is rich violet, and the collar feath¬ 
ers, forming a ruff, are emerald green. I11 
this species the tail is short and fluffy, from 
the downy feathers of which spring twelve 
thread-like shafts, from which peculiarity the 
name has been given. Occasional specimens 
of this bird have been found that were a snowy • 
white. 

Superb Bird of Paradise {Paradisea superba). This species carries its 
most distinguishing feature on the shoulder, instead of about the tail, as in 
those previously described. The scapulary feathers are so developed as to 
form a bifurcated arch, which maj^ be raised at the will of the bird above the 


BIRDS OF PARADISE. BIRD OF THE GODS 

[Paradisea apoda). kinglv bird of 
paradise [Cicinnurus regius). ra¬ 
diant crowned paradise ( Parotia 
sefilata ). 



THE LIVING WORLD. 



being the tail. It is a plump bird, corresponding in size to a dove, and has a 
bold expression like that of a bantam cock. On the crown is a double crest 
of deep green and of a velvety softness. The head, neck and back feathers 
are of a beautiful golden yellow, tinged with carmine on the edges. The 
wings and chest are of a warm chocolate brown, in most pleasing contrast 
with the other ornamentations. The tail is composed of filamentous feathers 
of a beautiful carmine color, while from either side, at the root of the tail 
proper, are two filose, or thread-like processes, that curve most gracefully theii 
length of quite two feet. 

The Spotted Bower Bird (Chlamydera maculata) has also been classed 
among the birds of Paradise, and properly so, because of its beautiful plumage ; but 
I have preferred to describe it among the singular nest-building species on page 359. 


ARBOR OR THE SPOTTED BOWER BIRD. 


292 

head, imparting a strange umbrella-like appearance, the grotesqueness of which 
is much increased by a corresponding forked tuft of feathers springing out from 
the throat. The general color of this bird is a very deep violet shot with green, 
which is very reflective of the sun’s rays, being almost prismatic in its bright 
refulgence. . 

Red Bird of Paradise (P. rubra). This bird is never found on the main¬ 
land of New Guinea, though pretty common on the smaller islands in close 
proximity. Its plume is hardly so rich as that of the preceding species, 
but it possesses, nevertheless, much beauty, the chief point of ornamentation 














THE LIVING WORLD. 


293 


King Bird of Paradise ( Cicinnurus regius ) is so called on account of its 
Imperious habits, and its apparent assumption of superiority .over other species. 
But though exercising a sovereignty, this bird is very small, ranking as the 
least of its congeners, and scarcely rivalling a sparrow in size. It differs from 
others of the paradisea species in that it is gregarious, going usually in flocks 
of twenty or thirty, over which one seems to preside as king. The natives of 
.New Guinea declare that this ruler of the flock may be distinguished by two 
.spots, resembling eyes, on the tail feathers ; they also affirm that in case the 
.king is killed all those by which he is surrounded flock down upon the body 
and refuse to leave it, so that they fall easy victims to the native hunters. In 
•color the upper parts are a rich chestnut brown, washed with delicate hues of 
purple, and the belly a pure white. Across the breast is a band of golden green, 
•extending to the shoulders, from which springs a plume of feathers of dusky- 
brown tipped with green. From the tail coverts project two filose shafts, which 
•expand at the tips into spiral tufts of an emerald-green color. 

Radiant Crowned ( Parotia sefilata ) is the name given to a royal species of 
sun-birds, distinguished for their brilliant plumage and the six filamentous shafts 
that spring from the crown, three on a side. D’Albertis is the only traveller that 
I remember who has seen and described this beautiful bird, and from his account 
I therefore quote: “ After standing still for some moments in the middle of 

the little glade, the beautiful bird peered about to see if all was safe, and then 
he began to move the long feathers of his head, and to raise and lower a small 
tuft of white feathers above his beak, which shone in the rays of the sun like 
burnished silver; he also raised and lowered the crest of stiff feathers, almost 
like scales, and glittering like bits of bright metal, with which his neck was 
adorned. He spread and contracted the long feathers on his sides in a way that 
made him appear now larger and again smaller than his real size, and jumping 
first on one end and then on the other, he placed himself proudly in an attitude 
•of combat, as though he imagined himself fighting with an invisible foe. All 
this time he was uttering a curious note, as though calling on some one to 
admire his beauty, or perhaps challenging an enemy. The deep silence of the 
forest was stirred by the echoes of his voice.” 

Other species of sun-birds are found in the Arroo Islands, Java, Celebes 
and Philippine Islands, among which may be mentioned Wallace’s Bright 
Wing (. Semioptera wallacii ), distinguished for having two thin but long feathers 
standing erect over each wing; Schlegel’s Bird ( Schlegelia wilsonii ), which is 
covered with magnificent feathers of a cobalt blue, especially about the head, 
and velvety black on breast and tail. 

The above includes all the species that have up to this time been described 
by naturalists, a list which appears altogether too brief, and found in a range 
too circumscribed for those whose love for the beautiful make them wish that 
the woods of every country were animate with such magnificent and splendid 
forms as only the barbarians of Oceanica are permitted to enjoy. 

PARROTS AND COCKATOOS. 

The brilliant plumage of several species of parrots entitles them to a 
position next to the birds of Paradise, notwithstanding the fact of total dis¬ 
similarity of general characteristic. The line of connection between parrot and 


294 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


cockatoo is, however, most distinct, and the two are therefore inseparable irr 
the proper arrangement of species. 

The most marked distinguishing features of both parrot and cockatoo are 
the large and strong beak, the upper mandible being sharply curved and 
hanging over the lower, but the lower jaw is extensible so as to permit the 
sharp points of the two bills to be brought together. The tongue is short and 
thick, free at the anterior end and capable of articulation. The claws have 
four toes, usually short and very muscular, which serve the double purpose of 
grasping a perch and conveying food to the mouth, in which latter service the 
claws perform the services of a hand. The power of flight is rarely great, and 
some species spend most of their time on the ground. The smallest of the 
parrot species are called parrakeets , a diminutive expression for parrot. 

Warbling Parrakeet (. Melopsittacus undulatus) is the name of the most 
beautiful of the species, and betrays such affection for its 
mate that it is often called love-bird. It is a native of 
Australia, but such large numbers are imported to 
America that the species is quite common among us. 
In the regions of New South Wales the bird goes 
in large flocks, and feeds off the grasses which cover 
the inland plains. Its nest is made in the hollows of 
dead trees, where it deposits four eggs, laying only 
on alternate days, and hatching its brood in about three 
weeks. The sounds it emits are variable, so much so 
that it may be said to have considerable powers of imi¬ 
tation. The more usual sound it produces is a low 
warble, which the male may often be seen producing 
in the very ear of his mate, as if she should have the 
full benefit of his vocal accomplishment. The color is 
green striped with black. 

The Blue-banded Parrakeet (. Euphema chrysostoma) 
is also a habitant of Australia, but in the fall migrates 
to Van Diemen’s Land to pass the winter. It spends 
much of its time on the ground, where it is a swift 
runner. It nests in a hole of some dead tree and lays 
six or seven eggs. The body is green washed with 
brown, and the head is a beautiful azure, with yellow 

around the eyes. 

The Scaly-breasted Parrakeet ( Trichoglossus chlorolepidotus) , or hairy- 
tongued tori, is peculiar to New South Wales, where it is very plentiful. It is 
the largest of the species, but feeds chiefly off the nectar of flowers, a dainty 
diet for such a large and vigorous bird. They seem to possess the power to 
distil honey, for when killed in their native haunts their crops are sure to be 
filled with this sweet, so that the people take the birds for the honey 
they yield. This species is easily tamed, and will thrive on a diet of sugar 
and seeds. They go together in immense flocks, sometimes settling on trees in 
such vast numbers as to break down the branches. The color is a rich 
green on the back, and the breast a light yellow with green edges, giving 
an appearance qf scales. 

The Ground Parrakeet ( Pezophorus formosus) is a beautiful little creature 



WARBLING PARRAKEET. 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


-95 


with green and yellow coat trimmed with black flecks. It loves the ground, 
rarely rising higher than the low branches of a shrub. It has a pheasant shape 
and can run equally as swift, being able to baffle an ordinary dog. It builds 
no nest, but lays its eggs upon the bare ground. 

Ringed Parrakeet ( Palceornis torquatus) inhabits Africa and Asia, and is 
a species of a large genus that is frequently mentioned by ancient writers. 
It is chiefly distinguished for having a tail of extraordinary length, double that 
of the body, and for the confiding and affectionate disposition it displays. The 
color is a grass-green on the back, changing to a light blue toward the neck, 
while below the neck is a narrow, rose-colored band joined to one of black that 
swings around the breast till the points reach the eyes. The upper mandible 
is a beautiful coral-red, while the lower is black, being a remarkable variation 
from all other birds. This species has been taught to utter a few words, but 
is not worthy to rank among the talking parrots. 

Yellow-Bellied (. Platycercus caledomcus) and the Rose Hill (P. eximius) 


so nearly alike in size and 


are both found in Van Diemen’s Land, and 
habits that they may be included in a single 
paragraph. The former is very beautiful in its 
livery of rich crimson crest and mottled-green 
back, while the breast and throat are yellow. 

The latter is no less charming in a plumage 
of scarlet head, neck and sides, with throat of 
pure white. The cock is a dark green, with 
lighter shades on the tail coverts and central 
tail feathers. Both species are gregarious, appear¬ 
ing sometimes in such vast numbers as almost 
to darken the sky. Their flight, however, is 
short, and when aroused they quickly settle 
on the ground. They are as much despised by 
the Australians as the English sparrow is by ' 
us, being inveterate thieves, and an enemy to 
other more useful birds. But they are excellent 
food, and this fact will soon lead to a rapid 
diminution of their number. 

Gray Parrot ( Psittacus erythacus). This is 
the most interesting of the parrot species; not 
because of the marvellous powers of imitation it possesses, in which faculty it 
has no rivals. This species is a native of West Africa, its range being from 
the Gold Coast to the Gaboon river, where considerable numbers are found. 
Its color is an ashen gray over both back and breast, and a carmine tail, in 
which alone resides any beauty. Great numbers of these birds are imported 
to Europe and America, where they are in popular request for their linguistic 
accomplishments. 

As they build their nests in the hollow of dead trees, the natives have 
little trouble discovering them, and effect a capture of the young by felling the 
tree, in which, however, many are killed. The natives also take the old ones 
by shooting them with blunt arrows, that stun but seldom kill. The young 
are very much preferable, as they are more easily taught if taken before they 
acquire the harsh notes of the older ones. 



RINGED PARRAKEET. 


the common name given to 
because of its plumage, but 



296 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


SOME AMUSING STORIES. 

Many amusing stories are told illustrative of the comical situations fre¬ 
quently provoked by talking parrots, two of which are felicitously reported by 
Woods as follows: 

“ There was a parrot belonging to a friend of our family, a Portuguese 
gentleman who had married an English wife and resided in England. This 
parrot was a great favorite in the house, and being accustomed equally to the 
company of its owner and the rest of the household, was familiar with Portu¬ 
guese as well as English words and phrases. The bird evidently had the 
power of appreciating the distinction between the two languages, for if it were 
addressed its reply would always be in the language employed. 

“The bird learned a Portuguese song about itself and its manifold perfec¬ 
tions, the words of which I cannot remember. But it would not sing this 

song if asked to do so in the English language. 
Saluted in Portuguese, it would answer in the same 
language, but was never known to confuse the two 
tongues together. Toward dinnertime it always 
became very excited, and used to call to the servant 
whenever she was late, ‘ Sarah, lay the cloth—want 
my dinner!’ which sentence it would repeat with 
great volubility, and at the top of its voice. 

“ But as soon as its master’s step was heard 
outside the house its tone changed, for the loud 
voice was disagreeable to its owner, who used to 
punish it for screaming by flipping its beak. So 
Polly would get off the perch, very humbly sit on 
the bottom of the cage, put its head to the floor, 
and instead of shouting for its dinner in the former 
imperious tone, would whisper in the lowest of voices, 
‘Want my dinner! Sarah, make haste, want my 
dinner!’ 

“ In the well-known autobiography of Lord Dun- 
donald, there is an amusing anecdote of a parrot which 
had picked up some nautical phrases, and had learned 
to use them to good effect. 

“ Some ladies were paying a visit to the vessel, 
and were hoisted on deck as usual by means of a 
‘whip,’ i.e.y a rope passing through a block on the yard-arm, and attached to 
the chair on which the lady sits. Two or three had been safely brought on deck, 
and the chair had just been hoisted out of the boat with its fair freight, when 
an unlucky parrot on board suddenly shouted out, ‘ Let go!’ The sailors 
who were hauling up the rope instantly obeyed the supposed order of the 
boatswain, and away went the poor lady, chair and all, into the sea. 

“ Its power of imitating all kinds of sounds is really astonishing. I have 
heard the same parrot imitate, or rather reproduce in rapid succession, the 
most dissimilar of sounds, without the least effort and with the most astonishing 
truthfulness. He could whistle lazily like a street idler, cry prawns and 
shrimps as well as any costermonger, creak like an ungreased ‘ sheave ’ in the 
pulley that is set in the blocks through which ropes run for sundry nautical 



SOUTH AMERICAN GRAY PARROT. 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


297 


4“ 


purposes, or keep up a quiet and gentle monologue about his own accomplish¬ 
ments with a simplicity of attitude that was most absurd. 

“ Even in the imitation of louder noises he was equally expert, and could 
sound the danger whistle or blow off steam with astonishing accuracy. Until 
I came to understand the bird, I used to wonder why some invisible person 
was always turning an imperceptible capstan in my close vicinity, for the par¬ 
rot had also learned to imitate the grinding of the capstan bars and the metallic 
clink of the catch as it falls rapidly upon the cogs. 

“ As for the ordinary accomplishments of parrots, he possessed them in 
perfection, but in my mind his most perfect performance was the imitation of 
a dog having his foot run over by a cart-wheel. First there came the sudden, 
half-frightened bark, as the beast found itself in unexpected danger, and then’ 
the loud shriek of pain, followed by a series of howls that is popularly termed 
1 pen and ink.’ Lastly, the howls grew fainter, as the dog was supposed to 
he limping away, and you really seemed to hear him turn the corner and retreat 
into the distance. The memory of the bird must have been most tenacious, and 
its powers of observation far beyond the common order ; for he could not have 
been witness to such canine accidents more 
than once.” 

The Gray Parrot is noted also for its 
singular attachments, in which respect, how 
ever, there is a correspondence among all 
the genera. Several instances are well au¬ 
thenticated in which the parent has become 
foster-mother to fledglings of other birds, in 
which capacity she has given her charge 
the tenderest possible care, and has exhibited 
the greatest grief when the brood, being 
raised up, have deserted her. They have 
also been seen to converse with other birds, 
first using their acquired vocabulary, and 
mxnifesting great impatience at receiving no 
response, but afterwards communicating by 
what appears to be a universal bird language. 

That parrots live to a very great age is a well ascertained fact, the limit 
falling little short of one hundred years. M. Le Vaillant gives an account of 
one that was kept in captivity through a period of ninety-three years. At the 
time that eminent naturalist saw it, it was in a state of entire decrepitude, 
and in a kind of lethargic condition, its sight and memory being both gone, 
and was fed at intervals with biscuit soaked in Madeira wine. In the time of 
its youth and vigor it had been distinguished for its colloquial powers and 
-distinct enunciation, and was of so docile and obedient a disposition as to 
fetch its master’s slippers when required, as well as to call the servants, etc. 
At the age of sixty its memory began to fail, and, instead of acquiring any 
new phrase, it began to lose those it had before attained, and to intermix, in 
a discordant manner, the words of its former language. It moulted regularly 
every year till the age of sixty-five, when this process grew irregular, and the 
tail became yellow, after which no further change of plumage took place; its 
death was easy, as though the physical forces had become gradually exhausted. 



AFRICAN GRAY PARRG” 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


098 




The Hyacinth Parrot, or Arara, is a very large species, resembling the 
macaws. It is found in the deepest forests of South America, but never associating 
in flocks, like others of the species. In¬ 
deed, its numbers are so few that the bird 
is rarely seen, and it is therefore omitted 
from nearly all natural histories. The 
peculiarity of this bird, admirably illus¬ 
trated in the accompanying engraving, is 
found in the bill, which, instead of curv¬ 
ing and pointing downward, as in all 
other members of the parrot family, the 
curve is continued until the point of the 
beak is directly under the throat, making 
nearly a half circle. This shape of the 
bill is convenient, since being largely a 
ground bird, subsisting off worms and in¬ 
sects that burrow, it is the better enabled 
to dig, and also to bite through decayed and 
fallen limbs in search for its food. The 
sides of the face are not bare as in macaws , 
though in other respects it bears a striking 
resemblance, the tail being equally long. 

Around the base of the lower mandible 

runs a sharp¬ 
ly definedcir- 
cle of flesh, 
bare of feath¬ 
ers, which 
forms rath- 
a striking 

feature. hyacinth arara. 

The Ruffle-Necked Cockatoo is 

found in several islands of Oceanica, but 
is not very numerous, nor is it so 
large as the white species. The color is 
a dusky black, with lighter shades on the 
tips of the primary feathers. Instead of 
being provided with a crest of erectile 
feathers, as are all others of the species, 
it has a ruff, which it raises at will, 
but usually keeps depressed except 
when excited or during the mating 
season. This imposing neck ornament 
is only present in the males. Its 
powers of flight are considerable, hence 
ruffled necked cockatoo. most of its time is spent among the 

branches of tall trees, though it is fre¬ 
quently seen upon the ground feeding upon roots and insects. Few species 
have been introduced into European or American aviaries. 







THE LIVING WORLD. 


299 




The Amazon Green Parrot ( Chrysotis amazonica ) is about the size of 
its African congener, and its powers of linguistic expression equally great, 
though it is hardly so quick to learn. The coloring is somewhat more florid, 
the head being adorned with yellow, red and violet, ends of the wings red, and 
the long tail feathers yellow. Mr. Clausius relates the following anecdote: 

“ A certain Brazilian woman, that lived in a village two miles distant from 
the island on which we resided, had a parrot of this kind which was the won¬ 
der of the place. It seemed endued with such understanding as to discern and 
comprehend whatever she said to it. As we sometimes used to pass by that 
woman’s house, she would call upon us to stop, promising, if we gave her a 
comb, or a looking-glass, that she would make her parrot sing and dance to 
entertain us. If we agreed to her request, as soon as she had pronounced 
some words to the bird it began not only to leap 
and skip on the perch on which it stood, but also 
to talk and to whistle, and to imitate the shoutings 
and exclamations of the Brazilians when they pre¬ 
pared for battle. In brief, when it came into the 
, woman’s head to bid it sing, it sang; to dance, it 
danced. But if, contrary to our promise, we refused 
to give the woman the little present agreed on, 
the parrot seemed to sympathize in her resentment, 
and was silent and immovable; neither could we, 
by any means, provoke it to move either foot or 
tongue.” 

Rose Parrot (Psittacella rosicalles ) belongs to 
a very small species found in New Guinea, and which 
might with propriety be 
classed among the parra- 
keets. It is beautifully 
marked with scarlet plu¬ 
mage on head and back 
part of the neck, with 
breast of white and yel¬ 
low ; the back and tail 
are of two shades of 
green. It is not a very 
well known species. To ROSE parrot. green parrot (Plalycercus exitnius). 

this species also belongs .... 

the Pigmy Parrot (. Nasitewia pygiiMEa ), which is of possibly more diminutive size 


and less gaudy plumage. 

Carolina Parrot {Conurus carolinensis) is the only one of the genera found 
within the United States, and though it was at one time very numerous along 
the southeast coast of Florida, and was once found as far north as New 
York, and west to Ohio, it is not now very commonly met with, owing to its 
persistent slaughter by cruel huntsmen. It is a small bird, scarcely ranking 
above the parrakeet, of a generally green color on the back, forehead dark red, 

and head, neck and belly yellow. , Ar . 

The Ring Parrot (. Palceornis torquatus) is a native 01 India and Atrica, a 
species that was first brought to Greece by Alexander, and the first bird known 



3°° 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


hy Europeans to possess the power of speech. It is specially numerous in 
India in both a free and captive state, and in the former at times becomes a great 
pest to agriculturists, whole fields of grain being sometimes settled upon by 
•enormous flocks and entirely destroyed. The color is green and black, with a 
xing of black extending from the lower jaw back and over the neck. The tail 
is very long and of a yellowish hue. 

Blue-crowned Parrot (Coryllisgalgulus) is a small species found in con¬ 
siderable numbers in the Malay peninsula. They have imperfectly developed 
wings, and therefore spend much of their time on the ground, or hopping from 
limb to limb. The most singular characteristic is its bat-like propensity for 
hanging head downward when sleeping, and often when eating, this position 
appearing a most natural one to them. The prevailing color is green, with a 
crown of light blue. 

The Owl Parrot (Stringops kabroptilus), also called Kakapo, is a singular 
creature, combining, as it does, the features of both owl and parrot. It is found 
principally in New Zealand and Australia, but was not brought to the attention 
of naturalists until 1845. The head > especially about the eyes, is peculiarly 
owl-like, and its habits largely nocturnal. The wings are small, so that its 



OWL PARROT. BLUE-HEADED LORIS (LoriculuSgalgulus). 


flight is restricted to short distances, and most of its time is spent upon the 
ground. The color is generally green, with longitudinal dashes of yellow and 
-cross-bars of black. About the eyes are discs of radiating feathers of yellowish 
brown. It burrows in the ground, but builds its nest on the surface or under 
-shelving rocks, and deposits, like all the parrot family, but two eggs. • In cap¬ 
tivity it shows a kindly disposition and all the playfulness of a young kitten. 
But four species are known, and these will no doubt soon become extinct, their 
numbers now being few, and constantly diminishing through the depredations 
upon them of dogs, cats and rats. 

The Loris constitute a family called trichoglossidce (hair-tongued), from the 
-papillae on the tongue, which resemble thin hairs. They are in all other 
respects like the parrot, except that they do not climb by the use of feet and 
“bill as do all others of the genera. Usually the tail is broad, but covered 
hy the projecting wing, but in some species, like the Papuan Lory ( Charmo - 
syna papua), the tail feathers are extremely long. The colors of this bird are 
remarkably rich, being a deep scarlet flecked with azure, golden yellow and 
pea-green, while the bill is orange-red. The length is about eighteen inches, 
of which the tail constitutes two-thirds. 





THE LIVING WORLD. 


3or 



The Purple-capped Lory (Lorius domicettus ) is, like the former species, x 
native of New Holland (Papua), considerably larger in size of body and even 
more brilliantly clothed. The crown is a deep purple, and face, neck,, 
and breast a rich scarlet, with a bright collar of yellow. The wings r 
tooj are scarlet, tipped at the ends with black and yellow. 

The Macaws are grouped under a separate head because of their greater 
size, gaudy plumage and other characteristics at variance with the true parrot,, 
noticeable among 
which is their naked 
cheeks. They are 
almost entirely con¬ 
fined to South and 
Central America. Its 
haunts are usually 
in dense woods, and 
about swampy dis¬ 
tricts where the palm 
flourishes, on the fruit 
of which it feeds. 

Eighteen species are 
known, of which the 
three most familiar are 
the Blue and Yellow 
Macaw (Ara arara- 
una ), the Great Green 
Macaw (Sittace mili¬ 
tarist , and the Scarlet 
Macaw ( 5 . coccinea ), 
all of which range 
from Brazil to middle 
Mexico. They are ex¬ 
tremely noisy birds, 
and can rarely be 
taught to speak even 
a few words, but being 
very courageous they 
are easily captured, 
and despite their cla¬ 
morous cawings, are 
popular pets. 

Cockatoos belong 

to the family Plictolo- GREAT GREEN macaw. amazon parrot {Chrysalis amazomca ). 

hida , a name derived , . . + v, 0 

from the Latin and Greek, to designate a characteristic peculiar to all the sp ecl es, 
viz the provision of a crest of feathers, which they have the power to erect or 
depress at wm. They are confined to Australia and Oceamca. The prevailing 
color is white, black or brown, the former predominating. 

Their habits are very sociab e, having some resemblance n this respect to 
parrakeets. Being strong of wing, they perch on very tall trees, but feed 


302 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


on grain chiefly, though some species, descend to the ground and dig up 
roots and bulbs, while yet others imitate the habits of woodpeckers, attacking 
decaying trees, tearing off the bark, and even biting out pieces of wood in their 
search for insects. There are thirty-five species classified and named by natural¬ 
ists, nearly all of which produce similar notes, resembling a phonetic pronunci¬ 
ation of the word cock-a-too , from whence the name is derived. 

The Pink Cockatoo (. Plictolophus leadbeateri ) was the first specimen of the 
genera brought to Europe, which was purchased by Mr. Leadbeater, an English 
naturalist, after whom the species was named. The color is a pure white, suf¬ 
fused with pink, while the crest is barred with crimson, yellow and white. 

The Kea ( Nestor notabilis ) is confined entirely to Philipp Island, which is only 
five miles in extent. It is remarkable for the astonishing length of the upper 
bill, projecting, as it does, some two inches beyond the lower mandible. On this 
account it is sometimes called the Long-billed Parrot. It subsists largely from 
the honey it extracts from blossoms of the hibiscus, to obtain which its tongue 

is furnished with a long, narrow, horny 
scoop at the under side of the extremity, 
up which the sweet juices are sucked. 
But it is also known to dig in the earth 
for tender bulbs, for which purpose the 
very long upper mandible is well adapted. 
The color is brown and gray, with occa¬ 
sional flecks of red and yellow. This 
bird is supposed to be the connecting 
link between parrot and cockatoo. 

The Banksian Cockatoo ( Calypto - 
rhynchus) is an Australian bird of con¬ 
siderable size and brown color, sometimes 
dyed with richest hues of red and yel¬ 
low. The name Baziksian has been given 
to it on account of the seeds of the banksia 
being its chief subsistence, though it is 
also fond of insects, which it digs out of 
decaying trees. 

(Cacatua galerita ) is a very beautiful and 
kindly disposed bird, and a species most commonly seen in aviaries. It is a pure 
white with tints of pale red, and the head is surmounted by a long crest that 
when erected looks like young onion stalks. It yields readily, to kind treatment, 
and may be easily taught to perform many amusing tricks. 

The Great White Cockatoo ( Cacatua crzstatus) is also a very handsome 
bird, almost equal in size to a guinea-hen, and is strikingly intelligent. It learns 
quickly and talks almost as well as the green parrot. But it becomes excited 
on small provocation and displays the greatest violence, both by a shocking noise 
and fierce attacks. The plumage of this species is white, with very slight rose 
tinge, and the crest is also white. 

The Great Black Cockatoo (Mzcroglossus aterimum) is a native of New 
Guinea, and the largest of the genera. It differs from others of the family in 
having the bill toothed and the tongue long, tubular and extensible. This forma¬ 
tion of tongue would seem to place it among the honey-suckers, but its habits 



THE PINK COCKATOO. 


The Sulphur-crested Cockatoo 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


303 


do not accord with this apparent provision, since it is a grain-feeder. The use of 
the tongue has therefore not yet been fully determined. The general color is 
black, with a raven gloss, and sometimes of a very light color, due to the accu¬ 
mulation of dandruff, or quill powder upon the feathers. 


TOUCANS AND HORNBILLS. 



Of the many singular forms and characteristics displayed by nature, 
perhaps none are more curious than the features observable in the birds 
classed under the general head of ramphastidce (large billed). They are dis¬ 
tinguished by what appear to be pre- 
ternaturally large beaks, equal in 
length to one-half the body, and of 
immense circumferential proportions. 

Some have not only enormous beaks, 
but to these colossal frontispieces are 
added a helmet of horn overweighting 
the head to such an extent as would 
appear to constantly hold the head 
downward. But nature does not make 
her creations with amateur hands, for 
though she produces many queer ap¬ 
pearing and apparently redundant 
things, it is always with marvellous 
■design and wondrous adaptation. Dis¬ 
proportionately large as are the bills of 
the toucan family, they give no incon¬ 
venience, for they are marvels of light¬ 
ness, rivalling the pearly nautilus in 
■delicacy of structure, and serve no less 
admirable uses. 

The Red-billed Toucan ( Ram- 

phastus tucanus\ like all its congeners, 
is a habitant of South America, and 
grows to a considerable size, equal 
perhaps to a crow. There are some 
fifty species, but there is great resem¬ 
blance between the varieties in size, 
appearance and habits, so that a 
general description will answer for sulphur-crested cockatoo. 

them all. The red-billed toucan , and 

the great toucan (R. tuco) are the largest and differ only in the color of the 
bill, one being red and the other orange. They build their nests in the hollow 
of some dead limb, scooped out by a laborious process, and, like the parrots, 
only lay two eggs. The young have the bill well developed as soon as they 
appear, but are nourished by the parents a considerable while longer than are 
the young of most birds. 

The flight of the toucan is very slow and ungraceful, and on the ground 
its movements may be described as “ straddle-legged,” moving by hops, with the 
legs spread far apart, giving it a most awkward appearance. The cry is quite 



304 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



as rasping and distressing as is that of the parrot, which it somewhat resembles,, 
though when calling the notes are toucano , toucano , from the sound of which the 
name has been given. They possess an omnivorous appetite, feeding without 
special preference off fruits, grain, white ants or any kind of meat. It com¬ 
mits great havoc among fruit gardens, but partially compensates for such 
depredations by the great destruction it works among ants, the largest hills of 
which it breaks down and devours the greater part of the inhabitants. In cap¬ 
tivity it will kill and eat mice, rats and birds, and an instance is on record where 

one seized upon a soldier’s car¬ 
touche box and devoured all the 
cartridges, but with fatal result. 

When sleeping, the toucan shifts 
his head so as to lay the monstrous 
bill squarely upon the back, and 
then covers it entirely by tilting- 
the tail up over it, the vertebrae of 
the tail being articulated specially 
so as to permit of this singular 
motion. When excited, or even hop¬ 
ping from branch to branch, the tail 
is kept tipping as though worked 
on hinges, which adds a weird effect 
to the otherwise curious creature. 

The Hornbills differ from the 
toucans in having a double bill, 
the purpose of which has not yet 
been determined. D. G. Elliott, in 
an excellent monograph on these 
strange birds, says : “As they exist 
at the present day, they exhibit to 
us probably but a remnant of the 
great family which once dwelt amid 
the forests of that mighty Eastern 
Continent, of which a large portion 
is now beneath the waters.” Mr. 
Elliott has succeeded in collecting 
sixty species, which he found dis¬ 
tributed over Africa, India and the Austria-Malayan region, 
where it is sometimes called rhinoceros bird. 

The hornbill varies in size, according to species, from that of a robin to a 
crow, the larger species being somewhat more plentiful. They are frugivorous, 
except that during the nesting period the female feeds principally on insects. 
Remarkable as is the appearance of this bird, its habits are no less curious, 
and particularly in the manner of rearing the young, in which it differs very 
much from all other birds. The nest is built in the hollow of a tree, with no- 
more care than the mere scooping out of a convenient receptacle some twelve 
inches deep, no lining of any kind being used. The female deposits but a 
single egg and then begins with great earnestness the process of incubation, 
but with this beginning a strange thing occurs. Instead of following the cus- 


GREAT BLACK COCKATOO. 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


305 



tomary usages of birds, leaving the nest at infrequent intervals to keep up old 
acquaintances, through occasional visits, she becomes an astonishing example of 
exclusiveness, for she goes in upon the nest and then seals up the exit, care¬ 
fully plastering up the hole with her own ordure, and leaving only a small 
slit through which to receive the food brought to her by the male. She is 
therefore unable to leave the nest until the young is hatched, her liberation 
being then accomplished by the joint efforts of herself and mate. Should the 
plaster which confines her be broken before the hatching is completed, she 
seems to be almost help¬ 
less, and if put upon the 
ground is so stiff and 
nearly featherless that she 
is unable to rise even to 
the lowest branches. 

The larger species of 
hornbills have powerfully 
developed wings, but their 
bodies are so heavy that 
flight is awkward and seem¬ 
ingly very laborious. When 
several take wing together 
they produce a noise not 
unlike a locomotive when 
getting under way with a 
heavy load. 


THE CUCULID.SE, OR CUCKOOS. 


The order of birds 
under which cuckoos are 
classed is a very large one, 
numbering a hundred spe¬ 
cies, and found in nearly 
all countries. The popu¬ 
lar name proceeds from the 
familiar note it utters most 
frequently at early dawn. 

The great variety of species 
presents a remarkable dis¬ 
similarity of appearance, 
ranging between that of 
a timid sparrow to a strik¬ 
ing resemblance which at 

least one species (cuculus canorus) presents to a small hawk, while several show 
all the markings of falcons, and also of the shrike. Only in one respect do 
the several varieties exhibit a common characteristic, unless we are critical 
enough to look below the exterior. They are all parasites (save the few 
American species) in respect to laying the ireggs in the nests of other birds and 
imposing the care of their young to these enforced foster-parents.. Concerning 
this singular habit Mr. Seebohm, an excellent authority, thus writes: 

20 


RED BILLED TOUCAN. 


3°6 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



“ The cause of this curious habit is difficult to discover. It has been suggested 
that the hereditary impulse to leave its breeding grounds so early originally 
obliged it to abandon the education of its young to strangers; but the same 

habit is found 
in many species 
in India and Af¬ 
rica, which are 
resident and do 
not migrate. 
Others have at¬ 
tributed it to 
the polygamous 
habits of the 
cuckoo , but the 
cuckoo is not 
polygamous, it 
is polyandrous; 
the males are 
much more nu¬ 
merous than the 
females, and the 
sexes do not pair 
even for a sea¬ 
son. It is said 
that each male 
has its own feed¬ 
ing grounds, 
and that each 
female visits in 
succession the 
half dozen 
males who hap¬ 
pen to reside 
in the neighbor¬ 
hood. A more 
plausible ex¬ 
planation of the 
peculiar habits 
of the cuckoo is 
to be found in 
the fact that 
its eggs are laid 
at intervals of 
several days, 
great toucan. and not, as is 

usual, on suc¬ 
cessive days. . Very satisfactory evidence has been collected that the cuckoo 
lays five eggs in a season, and that they are laid at intervals of seven or eight 
days. The American cuckoo and many of the owls very often do the same. 

















THE LIVING WORLD. 


307 




This power has probably been gradually acquired by the cuckoo , so as to give the 
female time to find a suitable nest in which to deposit each egg. It is possible 
that this singular habit of the cuckoo has arisen from its extraordinary voracity. 
The sexual instincts of the male cuckoo appear to be entirely subordinate to 
his greed for food. He jealously guards his feeding grounds, and is prepared to 
do battle with any other male that 
invades them, but he seems to be a 
stranger to sexual jealousy. He is 
said to be so absorbed in his gluttony 
that he neglects the females, who are 
obliged to wander in search of birds 
of the opposite sex, and appear to 
have some difficult}' in obtaining the 
fertilization of their ovaries. The 
extreme voracity of the young bird 
is an additional reason why the care 
of the five nestlings should be en¬ 
trusted to as many pairs of birds. 

“ In its choice of a foster-parent 
for its offspring, it exercises more 
discrimination than might be sup¬ 
posed from the long lists which 
have been published of birds in whose 
nests its eggs have been found. An 

insectivorous bird is generally wrinkled horned toucan /tote), 

■chosen, and preference is given to 

such as build open nests. Sometimes the cuckoo is unable to find the nest of 
a suitable bird, and is obliged to deposit its egg in the nest of a granivorous 

bird, such as the various species of 
finches, buntings, etc., and occasion¬ 
ally in the nests of jays, or even 
owls.” 

Different varieties lay eggs of 
different color, but they do not pos¬ 
sess the power of determining the 
color in order to imitate those of 
other birds, as some suppose. The 
natural food of the cuckoo is cater¬ 
pillars, especially those of the largest 
and most repugnant aspect, and 
also bumble-bees, of which it con¬ 
sumes great numbers. 

The mode by which the cuckoo 
contrives to deposit her eggs in the nest of sundry birds was extremely dubious, 
until a key was found to the problem by a chance discovery made by Le Var¬ 
iant. He had shot a female cuckoo , and on opening its mouth in order to stuff 
it with tow, he found an egg lodged very snugly within the throat. 

When hatched, the proceedings of the young ctickoo are very strange. As 
in process of time it would be a comparatively large bird, the nest would soon 


BEARDED CUCKOO (BuCCO flavigulci). 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


308 




be far too small to contain the whole family; so the young bird, almost as soon 
as it can scramble about the nest, sets deliberately to work to turn out all the 
other eggs or nestlings. This it accomplishes by getting its tail under each egg 
or young bird in succession, wriggling them on to its back, and then cleverly 
pitching them over the side of the nest. It is rather curious that in its earlier 

days it only throws the eggs 
over, its more murderous pro¬ 
pensities not being developed 
until a more advanced age. 

There seems to be some 
peculiarity in the nature of 
the cuckoo which forces other 
birds to cater for its benefit, 
as even in the case of a tame 
and wing-clipped cuckoo , which 
was allowed to wander about 
a lawn, the little birds used 
to assemble about it with food 
in their mouths, and feed it 
almond cuckoo ( Coradas garruia). us long as it chose to demand 

their aid. 

Generally, the color of the cuckoo is bluish-gray above and along the back, 
with wings of black barred on the tips with white. The largest species is the 

Giant Cuckoo ( Scythropsprcesagus ) 


of New Guinea, the characteristics 
of which are very much like the 
toucan. Other species very com¬ 
monly known are admirably pic¬ 
tured in the accompanying engrav¬ 
ings. The Ant-eating Cuckoo 
(Crotophaga am') is confined to 
North America, but the large bill is 
very suggestive of the toucan. In the 
West Indies, where this bird is also 
found, a dozen or more have been 
known to build a single nest in 
which they deposited their eggs, 
sometimes thirty or more, and also 
do their hatching in communistic 
fashion, each female in turn doing 
her proportion of the .incubating 
and afterwards all uniting in the 

care of the young. GIANX cuckoo. 

The Chaparral Cock (Geo¬ 
coccyx californianus) is an American species included among the cuckoos for 
want of a more appropriate classification. It is chiefly found in the chaparral 
regions of the southwest, from whence the name is taken. It is a good flyer 
but seldom quits the ground, being so swift of foot that a dog does not easily 
overtake it. The food of this species is insects, and the smaller lizards and 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



bird puffing out the sides of the neck, and hammering on the ground as 
it violently exhausts the accumulated air, emitting a sound something like 
“ hoo-hoo-hoo” The bird has the power of giving off a dreadfully offensive 
odor, but why this provision has been vouchsafed to it and denied to all other 
birds, is not known. 

GOAT-SUCKERS AND SWALLOWS (Passeres). 

A very large order, numbering some hundred or more species, includes 
those birds of passage which are distinguished for taking their food while on 
the wing, of which goat-suckers and swallows constitute the larger number. 
They are a .so called fissirostres , because of the wonderful structure of their 
mouths, by which they are enabled to capture winged insects with an ease and 
celerity that at once exhibit marvellous adaptation. The name goat-sucker was 
originally applied by ignorant persons, who entertained the very silly belief that 
these birds drained the udders of not only wild goats, but of cows and sheep also. 


309 

mice, though some declare that it kills and eats rattlesnakes, which is most 
improbable. 

The Hoopoe ( Upupa epops ) is also a bird that naturalists have long suf¬ 
fered to wander in lonely isolation for want of a family relationship. Some 
have included it among the hornbills, because of the horny substance which 
compose the bills, others placed it next to the cuckoo, and Woods classed it with 
the birds of Paradise, which seems to fall a little short of ridiculous. The hoopoe 
is distinguished for having a tuft of erectile feathers, in which respect it re¬ 
sembles the cockatoos, but it has also a long, slim and slightly curved bill, 
which characteristic belongs to the snipe family. It has no metallic colors, but 
is beautifully pied with white and a rusty buff, and a slight pinkish tinge on 
the breast. Some six species are known, all confined to the old world, with 
considerable range, the upupa being found as far north as the semi-Arctic regions, 
and the wood hoopoe (irrisor ) as far south as lower Africa. Many superstitions 
were formerly connected with this bird, on account of its singular voice, but 
they are not now generally current. Mr. Robert Swinhoe, who has critically 
observed the habits of the hoopoe , says its strange notes are produced by the 


ANT-EATING CUCKOO. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



3 io 


These silly superstitions were perpetuated by numerous stories, related by 
persons who pretended to be eye-witnesses of the birds’ milk-loving propen¬ 
sities. But these accusations were not the most serious that were urged against 
the night swallows, since they were thought to be winged messengers of an 
evil power, or possibly wandering souls going about under the cover of darkness 


to discharge some envious commission. 


The whip-poor-will , which belongs to 
this species, is even 
to this day regarded 
as a bird of evil 
omen, the wandering 
shade of some soul 
that is permitted to 
make fitful visits 
from its Plutonian 
abode. This belief 
is more general than 
it would, perhaps, 
otherwise be on ac¬ 
count of the rarity 
with which the bird 
is seen. Its voice is 
commonly heard 
during the still 
summer nights, but 
though its notes are 
so well known as to 
make the bird 
familiar to people of 
all North America, 
yet in fact not one 
person in a thou¬ 
sand, probably, ever 
caught so much as 
a glimpse of the 
creature. For this 


reason many super- 
stitious persons 
regard the bird as a 
spirit. 

I have myself 
sought this creature 
with great diligence, 
creeping with all 
possible care towards the spot from whence its voice seemed to proceed, but 
except upon two occasions I was always unable to gain a view of it. The 
bird is both cunning and wary, leaving its perch so quietly, and usually haunt¬ 
ing such dense coverts, that the most acute vision is required to perceive it. 
The bull bat , or night swallow , is also rarely seen except when in pursuit of 
insects. When at rest it sits so closely upon a limb as to be almost invisible. 


GREAT GOAT SUCKER, OR NIGHT SWALLOW 






THE LIVING WORLD. 


3ii 

Though there is considerable disparity in the size of the several species, 
this is about the only well-defined variation, for in habits they are all very 
similar. Being among the swiftest of birds we may expect to find them in 
nearly all parts of the world, coming and going with the season’s changes. 
In color they are uniformly sombre—black, brown or ashen-gray ; the bill is 
short but they have an enormous gape, which is kept spread when the birds, 
are on wing. The tail is square or forked, wings long and pointed, and legs - 
so short that movement on the ground is both slow and awkward. The 
goat-suckers have a wonderful provision of cilia, or hairs, radiating from 
the jaws, that spread out to act as a 
funnel, somewhat like the baleen in 
the Greenland whale, though in the 
latter the purpose is that of a strainer. 

They usually lay their eggs, two in 
number, in a rudely constructed nest 
either upon the ground or on a flat 
rock, and the eggs so nearly assimi¬ 
late in color to the surroundings that 
they are rarely found, the rudeness 
with which the nest is made aiding 
very much to prevent their discovery. 

Swallows, however, build their 
nests either in sandy banks, as 
our sand-swallows; or of clay ce¬ 
mented to a wall or rock, with a 
round hole for entrance, as our 
mud-marten; or of sticks glued together with the birds’ glutinous saliva, 
like our chimney-swallow ; or in the hollow of some decayed tree or box, like 
our house-marten. The sand-marten, or bank-swallow, is very abundant about 

the steep banks of American rivers, where 
it excavates a round hole several feet deep, 
in the rear end of which it builds a nest 
of down and lays four white eggs. The 

mud-marten, or barn-swallow, is about the 
same size as the sand-marten, but much more 
graceful in movement, as it is handsomer in 
color. The breast is white, back a glossy 
black, with a circlet of dull orange about 

the breast, and tail forked. It usually builds 
its nest of mud on the rafters of old barns, 
FALLOW swallow ( Glarealapratincola). rarely venturing into new buildings. The 

clay thus used is taken from the moist shore 
of some pond or stream, and first worked into a round ball before being con¬ 
veyed to the place of deposition. When the nest is completed the bird lines 
it with coarser feathers, over which it arranges a layer of down plucked from 

its own breast. Its eggs are also four in number, and of a pure white. The 

cliff-swallow constructs its nest very similar to that of the barn-swallow, except 
that the entrance is like the long neck of a bottle. Otherwise the habits of the 
two are identical. 




YOUNG OF THE AMERICAN NJGHT SWALLOW. 





3 J 2 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




Several species of swallows, while possessing little brilliancy of plumage, 
are rendered very attractive by an ostentatious display of feathers, such as the 

wire-tail ( hirundo jilifera ), which trails behind it 
two very long hair-like feathers, and the crested- 
swallow ( dendrochelidon longipennis) , that is re¬ 
markable for the large helmet-like crest with 
which its head is adorned. Some species of 
goat-suckers are similarly arrayed, such as the 
leona ( macrodiptex longipennis) , and long-winged 
(caprimulgus vexillarius ), both of which have 
a single feather in each wing equal to double 
the length of the body, which imparts a most grace¬ 
ful appearance to these swift-moving creatures. 
The long-tailed (C. lyra ), rivals the long-tailed 
bird of Paradise in the extraordinary length of 
two feathers of its tail which curve inward to 
give a resemblance to the shape of a lyre. 

The most interesting species, because most 
important from a commercial point of view, is 
the Esculent Swallow, of which there are four 
species, viz.: the linchi ( collocalia fuciphaga ), 
the white-backed (C. troglodytes) , and the gray- 
backed (C. francica ), all of which, however, are 
natives of the Malay Peninsula, Corea and some 
of the neighboring islands. The nests which 
these birds construct are most singular, in that 
they appear somewhat like lichens or some 
other fungous growth, and not at all like nests. 
Their shape is irregular, and the hollow hardly 
great enough to retain the eggs. They are in¬ 
variably built on the face of precipitous rocks, 
in places least accessible to man, as if the birds were conscious of the esti-. 
mation in which their nests are held. 

The only means of reaching them, is by 
attaching a strong rope to some support 
above the rocks, and by this the nest- 
gatherer must be lowered over the preci¬ 
pice, which is always a most laborious 
and dangerous undertaking. 

The nests when first gathered are 
most uninviting in appearance, but when 
washed thoroughly exhibit the shin¬ 
ing, glutinous substance of which they 
are composed. Nests which have served 
a brood are of little value, but those 

gathered before the eggs are hatched, barn swallow {Hirundo rustica). 

are so highly regarded that they 

bring a price equal to their weight in silver; or, to be more exact, this is 
the price which wealthy Chinese are prompt to pay, but other nationalities 


CRESTED swallows i Dendrochelidon 
longipennis). 









THE LIVING WORLD. 


3 X 3 



consider them very differently, declaring the taste insipid if not nauseous. 
The method of preparing the nests for table is to first soak them thoroughly 

in tepid water, 
in which they 
swell and dis¬ 
solve, until 
after a time 
the water and 
nests form a 


pasty consist¬ 
ency, which 
very much re¬ 
sembles gum 
arabic glue. 
This sub¬ 
stance is heat¬ 
ed, also like 
glue, by sus¬ 
pending the 
vessel con¬ 
taining it in 
another filled 
with boiling 
water, and 
when thor¬ 
oughly heat¬ 
ed, is seasoned 
to taste and 
served in 
small cups. 
It is a some¬ 
what singular fact that though the secre¬ 
tion of our common chimney swallow is 
almost identical with that of the esculent 
swallow , yet, notwithstanding the high 
price paid for the latter, no attempt has 
ever been made to market the former. 

The Swifts, of which there are only 
two species, are found native to Africa, 
which country they leave in summer for 
a sojourn of a few months in Europe. 
They are so nearly allied to the swallows 
in appearance and habits, that separate 
description is unnecessary. They take their name from the extraordinary veloc¬ 
ity of their flight, and the agility which they display on the wing. The two 
species are the Cypselus apus and C. melba. Next to the frigate bird the 
swift is the fastest flyer of feathered creation, and is also capable of sustain¬ 
ing its flight for many hours; indeed, it is rarely seen at rest during the 
daytime. 











3i4 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


DOVES AND PIGEONS (Columbae). 





Unlike the preceding order, the family enumerated under the general classifi¬ 
cation Columbce is a large one, with representatives in all parts of the world, 

whose progenitors were no less important birds 
than the great dodo , which perished forever nearly 
two hundred years ago. The dodo was once very 
numerous on the island of Mauritius, but was 
never widely distributed over any mainland. It 
was a very large bird, weighing quite fifty 
pounds, and so clumsy and slow in its move¬ 
ments, and building its nest upon the ground 
wherein but a single egg was deposited, that 
when hogs were introduced on the island they 
soon devoured the birds and destroyed their nests. 
Thus it was that the dodo became speedily extinct 
parrot dove. through those ravages. 

Pigeons and doves are distinguished for their plumpness of body and strength 
of wing; though generally they are desti¬ 
tute of brilliant plumage, there are several 
species in the tropics clothed in the richest 
raiment, almost rivalling the sun-birds. They 
usually build their nests on low branches, 
and lay two eggs of pure white. Doves 
rear only a single brood each year, but 
pigeons of the domestic variety lay and 
hatch every month save March, so that they 
may be reckoned as being the most prolific 
of birds. They do not feed their young like 
other birds, but are provided with a double 
gullet, in which the food taken is mixed 
with a secretion that reduces it to a pulpy 
consistency, which the female has the power to raise again into the mouth, 

and which she parts with to the young. 

The Turtle Dove (Turtur auritus) is 
the most familiar of the genera, on account 
of its prevalence in all parts of the United 
States, where it is regarded with a kindly 
feeling, because of the soft and mournful 
notes it utters during the breeding season. 

The Crested Dove (Ocyphaps lophotes ) 
is a native of Australia, and distinguished 
alike for its exquisite plumage and the long, 
pointed crest with which its head is adorned. It 
is gregarious, going in immense flocks, whose 
actions seem to be controlled by a leader. 
crested dove. The Bronze Wing (O. chalcoptera ) is 

also a very beautiful Australian species, 
but rarely more than two are to be seen together, excent at watering-places, 
where, in the evening, these birds congregate in large numbers. 


TURTLE DOVE. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


3i5 


is also common to Australia, 
It spends the greater part of 





MANED DOVE. 


The Wonga Dove (Leucosarcia piccitci) 
where, in certain regions, it is quite plentiful, 
its time on the ground, picking up insects, 
seeds and small gravel. In rising from the 
ground, the wings vibrate with such rapidity 
as to produce a whirring noise very pheasant¬ 
like. 

The Nicobar, or Maned Dove ( Calcenus 

Nicobarica) , is a native of Java, Sumatra, and 
neighboring islands, and is a most beautiful 
bird. It is peculiar in being clothed with 
resplendent feathers of bright green, bronze, 
and steel blue, which, instead of lying close to 
the body, project loosely, giving it a tousled 
appearance. 

The Crowned Dove (. Megapelia coronata ) 
is, in some respects, the most magnificent species of the genera, being large 

in size, with splendid plumage, and a royal crest 
of filamentous feathers that radiate most grace¬ 
fully from the base of the bill to the back of the 
crown. 

The Rock Dove ( Columba livid) is widely dis¬ 
tributed in the north temperate zone, from England 
to Japan. It affects rocks rather than trees, from 
which fact the name has been given. It is easily 
domesticated, and makes a very agreeable pet, 
though if encouraged by the building of cotes it 
multiplies so rapidly as to become a nuisance. The 
color is gray, with hues of purple and green. 
The Ring ( Columba palumbus ) and Stock 
crowned dove. Dove (C. cenas) are common domestic species 

of Europe. The former may be recognized by the ring of white feathers 
about the neck. The latter is of a dull 
hue, distinguished only by its nesting 
habits, which are peculiar. It builds in 
hollow stumps, or even takes quarters 
in a deserted rabbit burrow, and is con¬ 
tent with only a few sticks in rather 
aimless arrangement, for the nest seems 
to have no comfort about it. 

The Parrot Dove ( Phalacroteron 
Abyssinica ), as the name implies, is a 
native of Abyssinia, though it is also 
found in other countries of northeast 
Africa. Except for the color, it bears 
a close resemblance to the African ring dove and rock dove. 

green parrot, being distinguished from . 

the parrot family by the dove characteristic, viz.: a fleshy protuberance at the 
base of the bill. 





3 l6 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



. wax 

TOOTHED PIGEON, 


The Top-knot Pigeon ( Lepholdimus antarcticus ) is confined to southeastern 
Australia, where it is found perched in the tallest trees, very rarely conde¬ 
scending to appear on the ground or lower branches. It is gregarious, and is 

occasionally found in such immense flocks as to break down the tops of 
large trees by their accumulated weight. In their passage, they fly so closely 
together that it seems wonderful how they manage to use their wings. It has 

a very large and thick crest of gray feathers, which lies horizontal and pro¬ 

jects some distance back of the head, lending a rather strange appearance to 

the creature. The neck and breast are 
hackled, and the tail feathers spotted with 
white, with some resemblance to a hawk. 

The Toothed Pigeon ( Didunculus strigi-1 
rostris ) is a creature that is supposed to com-' 
pose the link between pigeons and the dodo, 
hence the name didunculus , or little dodo. It 
is also called toothed , because the lower bill 
is notched like that of the toucan. The 
upper mandible is very large and sharply 
curved, by which structure it is able to dig 
up the soft roots of several plants upon 
which it feeds. The size is somewhat greater 
than that of our domestic pigeons , and the plumage is attractive, being a 
raven-black on head, neck, breast and abdomen, and the tail and under 
coverts a rich chestnut. It is found only in the Navigator Islands of the Pacific. 

The Passenger Pigeon ( Edopistes migratorius) is our best known Amen 
ican bird of the pigeon genera, though within the last few years it has so nearly 
disappeared that it is seldom seen except in the Indian Territory, where one or 
two large roosts are still visited. When a boy I have seen these pigeons fly¬ 
ing overhead in such enormous flocks that the sky would be fairly shut out from 
view by their bodies for hours at a time. 

These migrations were very frequent, caused 
by the very great devastations the birds 
wrought, requiring almost constant change 
of place to procure food. It is perfectly 
within the bounds of reason to say, as did 
Wilson, that as many as a billion wild 
pigeons have been seen to pass over a single 
course in three days, and that the con¬ 
sumption of food by these birds in the same 
time was equal to seventeen million bushels. 

Incredible as their numbers were twenty-five 
years ago, only a bare remnant now remains, 
and within, a like period they will probably 

become extinct. . So quickly do they leave their feeding places and so great is 
their speed of flight that specimens have been shot in northern New York 
with crops yet filled with rice taken from the savannas of the far South. As 
digestion is accomplished in these birds in less than twelve hours, the distance 
of. more than one thousand miles must have been traversed in less than that 
brief time. 



VbfA 

PASSENGER PIGEON. 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


3i7 


The Carrier Pigeon, in which at least six species are included, have been 
of great service to man, and would no donbt be more generally utilized if the 
telegraph had not been invented. They are still employed, however, to convey 
messages, being especially serviceable in time of war. 

Allusions to carrier pigeons are very frequent in the ancient classic writers, 
and in the Arabic poets. Anacreon informs us that he held a correspondence 
with his charming Bathillus by means of a pigeon. And it is related by HHian 
that Taurosthenes, a victor in the Olympian games, dispatched a pigeon stained 
with purple, to announce his triumph to his father, then on an island in ^Egina. 

Pliny also narrates that a correspondence by means of pigeons was carried 
on during the siege of Modena, between Decimus, Brutus and Hirtius. “ Of 
what avail,” says he, “ were sentinels, circumvallations, or nets obstructing the 
rivers, when intelligence could be conveyed by aerial messengers ?” In the cru¬ 
sades, the practice was tried by the besieged inhabitants of Tyre, but with less 
j, success. The besiegers had observed pigeons frequently hovering over the city, 
and began to suspect that these birds were messengers. Having contrived to 
i seize one, they loaded it with false intelligence, in consequence of which they 
obtained possession of the place. A regular system of posting by means of 
carrier pigeons was established in the twelfth century by the Sultan Noureddin 
Mahmoud. It was afterwards improved and extended, and continued till Bag¬ 
dad fell into the hands of the Mongols in 1258. Sir John Mandeville, who 
travelled in the fourteenth century, alludes to such a system as practised by 
the Turkish government. It was described at a somewhat later period as being 
1 carried on by means of lofty towers, erected at the distance of about thirty miles 
apart, and provided with a proper number of pigeons. Sentinels kept watch 
, in these towers to receive the birds and to transmit the intelligence which they 
had brought by others. The notice was inscribed on a thin slip of paper, 
enclosed in a gold box of small dimensions and as thin as the paper itself, 
suspended to the neck of the bird ; the hour of arrival and departure was 
marked at each successive tower, and, for greater security, a duplicate was always 
I dispatched two hours after the first. No such regular system now exists in 
the Turkish dominions, but carrier pigeons are still much used there. In 
Aleppo, during the last century, carrier pigeons were in constant employment 
for the purpose of acquainting the merchants with the arrival of their vessels 
at Scandaroon. The impatience of the pigeon to see its young was here taken 
advantage of, as an additional stimulus to procure its quick return. They 
would travel from Alexandretta in ten hours, and from Bagdad (thirty days’ 

I journey) in two days. From Scandaroon, which was distant forty leagues, they 
I required only from two hours and half to four hours. Towards the end of the 
'last century the employment of pigeons from Alexandretta and Bagdad was dis- 
| continued on account of the frequent destruction of them by the Curd robbers. 
'The practice was more recently in vogue among the Dutch merchants, for the 
[purpose of anticipating the ordinary means of conveyance in the receipt of stock 
'intelligence, by which they often realized considerable sums. 

BURROWING BIRDS. 

I have already given a brief description of the burrowing habits of the sand- 
marten, having to include' that bird with the swallow family; but there are sev¬ 
eral other burrowers which for want of distinct or appropriate classification may 
be properly noticed under the above head. Indeed, classification at best is but 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


318 

an arbitrary arrangement in many instances, as all naturalists admit, so tbat it 
is at least pardonable to ignore arrangements except where the family character¬ 
istics are easily distinguishable, and which I shall strive to observe. 

The Kingfisher (. Alcedo ispida ) is a burrower to the extent of seeking a con¬ 
venient cover excavated by some more industrious artisan. Having its haunts 
about the water it does not forsake its familiar range when ready to raise a 
brood, but goes in quest of a hole near the water’s edge, preferring a rabbit 
burrow, or the abandoned hole of a water-rat. Upon finding a place suited to 
its rather fastidious desires, the kingfisher expends some labor in shaping the 
aperture, and in digging out the hole anew so that it will have a slope upward 
towards the rear. This is to prevent the possibility of an invasion from rising 
water, for the air within the hole will prevent the water from penetrating to the 
elevated nest, however great may be the rise. The nest which the kingfisher 
constructs is remarkable both for its shape and the material that composes it. 
Mr. Gould, who has made a study of birds, and is everywhere recognized as an 
authority, tells us that the nest is composed wholly of fish-bones, minnows fur¬ 
nishing the greater portion. These bones are ejected by the bird when the flesh 
is digested, just as an owl ejects the pellets on which her eggs are laid. The 
walls of the nest are about half an inch in thickness, and its form is very flat 
The circular shape and slight hollow show that the bird really forms the mass 
of bones into a nest, and does not merely lay her eggs at random upon the 
ejecta. The whole of these bones are deposited and arranged in the short space 
of three weeks. 

It may possibly be owing to these bones and the partial decomposition which 
must take place during the time occupied in drying, that the burrow possesses so 
exceedingly evil an odor. This unpleasant effluvium, which may indeed be called 
by the stronger name of stench, is wonderfully enduring, and clings to the bird 
as well as to its dwelling. The feathers of the kingfisher are most lovely to the 
eye, but the proximity of the bird is by no means agreeable to the nostrils, the 
“ ancient and fish-like smell ” being extremely penetrating. 

The khigfisher is a great egg producer, usually laying eight or ten eggs each 
season, but if these be removed from the nest with care she will continue to lay 
throughout the season, like our domestic fowls. 

The largest of the species is the Laughing Jackass (Dacelogigas) of Aus¬ 
tralia, its length being about eighteen inches. It is not only larger than its con¬ 
geners, but differs somewhat from the other species in habits. While not refusing 
fish as food, it does not confine itself to a fish diet, being known to eat insects, and 
also rats and even snakes. The name, laughing jackass, has been given it because 
its twittering cry, common to all the several varieties, resembles the guttural 
call of the striped hyena, and sometimes is a fairly correct imitation of a bray¬ 
ing donkey. Though a burrower, this species does not make its nest in the 
abandoned hole of some earth-dweller, but seeks the hollow trunk of a tree in 
which the deposit of eggs is made without constructing any nest. 

The Ternate Kingfisher {Tanysiptera dea ) is found in New Guinea, and 
is very remarkable for the extraordinary length of its / central tail feathers, 
which are nearly bare from the junction of the wing tips to within an inch of 
the extremity, where they broaden out into webbed points. 

The Belted Kingfisher (Ceryfi alcyon ) is the species common in all parts 
of the United States, especially along the banks of streams, over which he sits 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


3i9 


on some bough fishing all day long. When aroused from his vigils he leaps 
off his perch with a sharp metallic twitter, but soon assumes another position, and 
proceeds with his fishing. Other species, in no wise differing in habit, are the 
Spotted (Ceryle guttata ), Great African (C. maxima ), Black and White, 
(C. rudis ), and the Speckled (. Alcedo ispida). 

The kingfisher is one of the -most voracious of birds, and occasionally 
pays dearly for his gluttony, as several anecdotes are related to show. Woods 
writes, in his Natural History : 

“ Sometimes the bird has been known to meet with a deadly retribution on 
the part of his prey, and to fall a victim to his voracity. One such example 
I have seen. A kingfisher had caught a common bull-head, or miller’s thumb, 
a well-known large-headed fish, and on attempting to swallow it had been 
baffled by the large 'head, 
which refused to pass 
through the gullet, and 
accordingly choked the 
bird. The kingfis her 
must have been extremely 
hungry when it attempted 
to eat so large a morsel, 
as the fish was evidently 
of a size that could not 
possibly have been accom¬ 
modated in the bird’s inte¬ 
rior. Several similar exam¬ 
ples are known; but one, 
which is recorded by Mr. 

Quekett, is of so remark¬ 
able a kind, that it is worthy 
of notice. The bird had 
caught and actually at¬ 
tempted to swallow a young 
dabchick, and, as might be 
supposed, had miserably 
failed in the attempt. 

“The most complete instance of poetical justice befalling a kingfisher , is 
one which occurred in Gloucestershire, and was related to me by an eye-witness. 
The narrator was sitting on the bank of a favorite river, and watching the 
birds, fish and insects that disport themselves upon and in its waters, when 
some strange blue object was seen floating down the stream and splashing the 
water with great vehemence. On a nearer approach it was seen to be a 
kingfisher , from whose mouth protruded the tail and part of the body of a fish. 
The struggles of the choking bird became more and more faint, and had well- 
nigh ceased, when a pike protruded his broad nose from the water, seized both 
kingfisher and fish, and disappeared with them in the regions below.” 

Such a misfortune sometimes befalls other fish-eating birds, for I one time 
saw a small grebe, in a St. Louis park, meet with a like disaster. It was 
fishing most industriously for small sun-fishes, quite a number of which it had 
eaten, when I observed it rise to the surface with a fish double the size of 



fabled nest of the halcyon bird. 









320 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


those before eaten; the grebe, with no intention of abandoning its prey, tried 
for many minutes to gorge the fish, and at length succeeded in swallowing the 
body so far that only the tail protruded, but was unable to drive it further 
with all its attempts at deglutition. The bird showed great distress, and 
gradually its efforts became fainter and fainter, until after some half hour of 
struggling it dropped its head into the water and expired. 

The Jacamars ( Galbulida ) of South America, which include four species, 
viz.: The Paradise Jacamar ( Galbula paradisea ), Green (G. viridus ), Three¬ 
toed {Jac. tridactj/la), and Great Jacamar (Jac. grandis ), though not nearly so 
large as the kingfisher, are very similar in form and nesting habits. The 
small Galbula paradisea is a very beautiful bird, rivalling the splendors of the 
most exquisite birds of New Guinea, but the others, save the green species, 
are of a dull, even sooty color. They are solitary creatures, spending the day 
on a single perch, watching for passing insects, on which they feed exclusively. 
In the breeding season, the male and female unite their labors in digging a 

hole in some sandy bank, inclining 
the excavation upward for a depth 
of eight to ten inches, the rear end 
being made globular in ‘form to re¬ 
ceive the nest, in which only two 
white eggs are laid. 

The Bee-eaters ( Meropida ) are 
very closely allied to the jacamars, 
and by some naturalists are included 
in the same order. The genera, how¬ 
ever, is a considerable one, number¬ 
ing, as it does, thirty species, and 
widely distributed. Those peculiar to 
Europe and Africa are distinguished 
for their rather brilliant metallic lus¬ 
tre, in which green is the predominant color. The breeding habits of the bee- 
eaters are peculiar. They nest usually in colonies, digging deep tunnels in 
steep, sandy river banks. This tunnel, which is often as much as ten feet 
long, opens into a considerably enlarged breeding chamber, where the female 
deposits usually five white eggs on the bare soil. These tunnels are dug 
at the expense of extraordinary labor, in which the pair perform an equal 
part; when the digging is finished, the bills of the birds will be found worn 
down to nearly one-half their original length. 

The Bee-eater of America ( Merdps Americana ), of which there is a single 
species, differs from its congeners of the old world ill having claws of great 
muscular strength and of structure like those of the hawk family. It is a small 
dull-colored bird, and seldom more than male and female are seen together. It 
sits upon a perch watching for bees or beetles, upon which it darts, uttering 
at the time a sharp twitter, and at once returns to the perch it left. When 
wounded the bird will fight most viciously, lying upon its back and offering a 
stout defence with beak and claws. After wounding a bee-eater upon one occa¬ 
sion I thoughtlessly attempted to secure it, when in a moment the bird turned 
upon its back and as I reached my hand near enough, it seized my finger with 
a wonderful grip, sinking the claws so deeply into the flesh and holding on so 
tenaciously that I was some time in breaking its hold loose. 



BEE-EATER (Merops apiaster). 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


321 


The Marmots and Todies of the West Indies, which are closely related to 
the bee-eaters, are also burrowers, digging holes like the sand-marten in sandy 
banks, but usually selecting dry ravines, and rarely run their tunnels a greater 
distance than six inches, in which four pearly white eggs are laid. 

The Puffin or Mask Bird (Fratercula arctica ), found plentifully along the 
northeast coast and on many islands, is a true burrower, though exercising its 
power for excavating only when necessity so compels. 

As is the custom with most diving birds, the puffin lays only one egg, and 
always deposits it in some deep burrow. If possible, the bird takes advantage 
of a tunnel already excavated, such as that of the rabbit, and “ squats ” upon 
another’s territory, just as the Coquimbo owl takes possession of the excavations 
made by the prairie dog. The rabbit does not allow its dominion to be usurped 
without remonstrance, and accordingly the bird and the beast engage in fierce 
conflict before the matter is settled. Almost invariably the puffin wins the day, 
its powerful beak and determined courage being more than a match for the 
superior size of its antagonist. When it is unable 
to obtain a ready-made habitation, it sets to work on 
its own account, and excavates tunnels of consider¬ 
able dimensions. 

The Feroe Islands are notable haunts of the 
puffin , because the soil, which is in many places soft 
and easily worked, is favorable for its excavations. 

The male is the principal excavator, though he is 
assisted by the female; and so intent is the bird 
upon its work, that it may be captured by hand, by 
thrusting the arm into the burrow. The average 
length of the tunnel is about three feet and is seldom 
straight, taking a more or less curved form, and be¬ 
ing furnished with a second entrance. No nest of 
any kind is used, but the egg is laid on the earth 
at the end of the burrow, so that, although it is 
at first beautifully white, it becomes in a short time ^ 

stained so deeply that it can seldom be restored to Arctica). crab-diver ( Uria troiie). 
its primitive purity. 

So deeply do the burrows run, that when a passenger is walking near the 
edge of the precipice upon which the puffins breed, he can hear the old birds 
grunting and chattering below his feet, disturbed by the footfalls above them. 

The young puffin has many foes that endeavor to seize it before the bill has 
attained its full proportions and defensive powers. The parent birds, however, 
bravely defend their progeny, and have been known, as a last resource, to grasp 
the invader in its beak and hurl themselves and foe into the sea. Once among 
the waves, the puffin has the advantage, for it is an excellent swimmer and 
diver, finding its food among the swift fishes which it catches with facility. 
Indeed, a puffin may be frequently seen with a half-dozen small fishes in its 
mouth’ at one time, all arranged in a row with the tails projecting. 
The bill of the puffin is so large and unsightly that the name mask-bird is not 
inappropriate, rendered more so by the singular fact that it is shed each year. 

There are many other birds which pass a semi-burrowing life, making 
their nests in hollows already excavated, and either using them without adap 



21 


322 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


tation, or altering them very slightly for the purpose of depositing their eggs. 
The Jackdaw ( Corvus monedula ) is frequently found making its nest within 
a deserted rabbit burrow. The Stock-dove ( Columba cenas) is also sometimes 
found rearing its young within an abandoned tunnel, as is also the Sheldrake 
(Tadorna vulpanser). This latter, however, invariably adopts a burrow that is 
contiguous to water, in order that its young may be more conveniently fed 
on the insects and Crustacea that live in the water-courses near the sea. The 
sheldrake is not fastidious, being content to accept nearly any hole, so that it 
be suitable for her eggs, which are generally from twelve to fifteen in number, 
which she carefully covers with down plucked from her breast. 

The Stormy Petrel ( Thalassidroma pelagica ), more commonly called Mother 
Cary's chicken , is also a member of the burrowing tribe, though its appearance 
would least suggest such a habit, for it is nearly always met with far out at 
sea. In fact, so constantly does it seem to be on the wing, and at such remote 
distances from the shore, that for many years it was supposed to never visit land, 
but to carry its eggs under its wing and there incubate them. This belief 
was not disproved until within the last fifty years, and many sailors even yet 
refuse to discredit the old fancy. It is therefore with much interest that the 
facts concerning its nesting habits are given. 

If the stormy petrel can find a burrow already dug it will make use of it, 
and accordingly is fond of haunting rocky coasts, and of depositing its eggs in 
some suitable cleft. It will also settle in a deserted rabbit-burrow, if it can 
find one sufficiently near the sea, and is found breeding in many places which 
would equally suit the puffin. 

Failing, however, all natural or ready-made cavities, the stormy petrel is 
obliged to excavate a tunnel for itself, and even on sandy ground is able to 
make its own domicile. Off Cape Sable, in Nova Scotia, there are many low- 
lying islands, the upper parts of which are of a sandy nature, and the lower 
composed chiefly of mud. Not a hope is there in such localities of already 
existing cavities, and yet to those islands the petrels resort by thousands, for 
the purpose of breeding. The birds set resolutely to work, and delve little 
burrows into the sandy soil, seldom digging deeper than a foot, and, in fact, 
only making the cavity sufficiently large to conceal themselves and their 
family treasures. 

Each bird lays a single egg, which is white and of small dimensions. The 
young are funny-looking objects, and resemble puffs of white down rather than 
nestlings. The parent attends to its young with great assiduity, feeding it with 
the oleaginous fluid which is secreted in such quantities by the digestive organs 
of this bird. So large indeed is the amount of oil, that in some parts of the 
world the natives make the stormy petrel into a lamp by the simple process 
of drawing a wick through its body. The oil soon rises in the wick, and burns 
as freely as in any of the really rude and primitive, though ornamental, lamps 
of the ancients. 

The petrel only feeds its young by night, remaining on the wing during 
the day, and flying to vast distances from the land. Owing to this habit, and 
its custom of taking to the sea during the fiercest storms, it has long been an 
object of dread to sailors, whose illogical minds are unable to discriminate 
between cause and effect, and who fancy that the petrel , or Mother Cary's chicken , 
as they call the bird, is the being which, by the exercise of some magic art, 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


323 


calls the storm into existence. They even fancy that the petrel never goes ashore 
nor rests; and will tell you that it does not lay its egg in the ground, but 
holds it under one wing, and hatches it while engaged in flight. To the vul¬ 
gar mind, everything incomprehensible is fraught with terrors, and so the 
harmless, and even useful petrel , is hated with strange virulence. 

Throughout the breeding season, the petrel is indefatigable in search of 
food, and will follow ships for considerable distances, in hopes of obtaining 
some of the offal that is thrown overboard by the cook. Even if a cupful of 
oil be emptied into the water, the petrel will scoop it up in its bill and take 
it home to its young. During the night it mostly remains with its offspring, 
feeding it and making a curious grunting noise, something like the croaking 
of frogs. This noise is continued throughout the night, and those who have 
visited the great nesting-places of the petrel , unite in mentioning it as a loud 
and peculiar sound. The ordinary cry is low and short, something like the 
quacking of a young duck. By day, however, the birds are silent, and only 
those who keep nightly watch on the ship’s deck, can have an opportunity of 
hearing their chattering cry. 

The burrow in which the young petrel is hatched is extremely odoriferous, 
the oily food on which the bird lives having itself a very rancid and unsavory 
scent; and in consequence of feeding upon this substance, both the habitation 
and the inmates are extremely offensive to the nostrils. The young bird is at 
first very helpless, and remains in its excavated home until it is several weeks 
of age. One of these birds was seen on the Thames in the month of Decem¬ 
ber, 1823, where it attracted some attention, its peculiar mode of pattering over 
the water causing it to be taken for a wounded land bird, and inducing many 
persons to go in vain pursuit of the supposed cripple. 

While many different genera rear their brood under ground there is a 
greater number of birds that are wood-burrowers, but among these there is 
no similarity in the color of their eggs. Most prominent among the birds 
with which we are best acquainted, that excavate their nests in the hollows of 
trees, are the woodpeckers , common alike to both the old and the new worlds. 
Birds of this family are easily distinguishable by the peculiar form of the 
beak, feet and tail. The powerful sharp-pointed bill enabling them to chip 
away the bark and wood, while the claws and tail are so formed as to support 
the bird firmly while this work is being performed. 

As is pretty generally known, woodpeckers make their nests in a tunnel 
which they drive through the decayed branches of a tree, never attacking the 
solid limbs, upon which they could make but small impression. Oftentimes 
trees which have the appearance of soundness are much decayed beneath the 
bark, and though this defect is not easily discoverable by man, unless such 
vegetable parasites as the lichen have made their appearance over the unsound 
portion, yet a woodpecker is able to tell unerringly just how far the decay 
has progressed. Such places are seized upon by the bird, which drives its 
lance-like bill into the softened wood, and by industrious hammering soon 
excavates a hole of proper dimensions and several inches deep, in which four 
pearly white eggs are deposited without further provision. When incubation 
begins the female is not easily driven from her nest, for I have more than 
once climbed, not without much difficulty and noise, up a tree in which a 
woodpecker had her nest, and succeeded in placing my hand over the hole 
before she would seek flight. 


324 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



The Blue-bird ( Sialia sialis) , so common everywhere in North America, 
and welcomed as the harbinger of spring, while not a burrower, builds its nest 
in the hollow of a stump or limb, or will drive away the marten, and take up 
its domicile in a cote. Every person holds the blue-bird in their affections, 
because of its azure plumage and soft, wooing notes, regardless of its rather 
vicious habits of making war on other birds. 

The Rollers ( Coracias garrula ) is a term applied to a family of European 
birds, found also in northern Africa, because of their curious “ tumbling ” 
motions when ascending, in which respect they resemble the “ tumbling ” 
pigeons, except that the latter assumes this singular motion while descending, 
and the former only when ascending. The roller nearly equals the raven in 
size, and possesses an equally discordant voice, which it almost incessantly 
exercises; the plumage, however, is very pleasing. It is very irregular in its 

nesting habits, sometimes building 
in the hollows of trees, sometimes 
upon the bare ground, and, again, 
tunnelling deeply into a sandbank, 
after the manner of the kingfisher. 

The Bell-bird (. Arapunga 
alba) , of Guiana, is one of the 
most singular of the feathered tribe, 
not only in one, but several par¬ 
ticulars. The color is a pure 
white, and the size and structure 
that of a pigeon, but in habits it 
is without example. The most 
curious features that distinguish it 
are its notes, crest and nesting 
habits. Its haunts are among the 
darkest coverts of South American 
forests, and usually about damp 
and most forbidding places, where 
it remains nearly always on the 
bell-bird. ground, hunting insects that are 

found most numerous about sedgy 
banks. For this reason, notwithstanding its conspicuous color, the bell-bird is 
rarely seen. It may be distinguished, however, at some distance, by the curious 
horn-like structure which grows from its forehead, and rises to a height of some 
three inches when elevated. This “horn” is jetty black in color, sprinkled 
very sparingly with little tufts of snowy-white down, and, as it has a commu¬ 
nication with the palate, has probably something to do with the bell-like sound 
of the voice. The song or cry of this species has been admirably described 
by Waterton, in his well-known “ Wanderings in South America.” 

“ His note is loud and clear, like the sound of a bell, and may be heard 
at the distance of three miles. In the midst of these extensive wilds, gener¬ 
ally on the dried top of an aged mora, almost out of your reach, you see the 
campanero, or bell-bird. No sound or song from any of the winged inhabitants 
of the forest, not even the clearly-pronounced ‘ Whip-poor-Will ! ’ from the 
goat-sucker, causes such astonishment as the toll of this species. 





THE LIVING WORLD. 


325 



“ With many of the feathered race, he pays the common tribute of a 
morning and evening song; and, even when the meridian sun has shut in 
silence the mouths of almost the whole of animated nature, the campanero 
still cheers the forest. You hear his toll, and then a pause for a minute, 
then another toll, and then a pause again, and then a toll and again a 
pause. Then he is silent for six or eight minutes, and then another toll, 
and so on. Actaeon would stop in mid-chase, Maria would defer her 
evening song, and Orpheus himself would drop his lute to listen to him, so 
sweet, so novel and romantic is the toll of the pretty snow-white campanero.” 

The “horn” of the bell-bird is only erect while the creature is excited 
and during the resonant cry, and when the bird is at rest it hangs loosely on 

the side of the face. Not until within the last few 
years has anything concerning the nesting habits 
of this bird been known. Recent travellers through 
Guiana have at length determined the fact, however, 
that during the breeding season 
the bell-bird retires to higher 
ground, and, invariably, to a 
rocky region, and selects a spot 
usually within a crevice or be¬ 
tween two large rocks ; here it 
digs a hole nearly twelve inches 
deep, which is lined with grasses 
rather roughly arranged, on 
which it lays two white eggs. 
The nest is so securely hidden 
from view that only by the 
greatest accident would it be 
discovered. 


SINGING BIRDS. 


If I were to undertake the 
labor of describing all the forest 
warblers of the world, prepara¬ 
tion would be necessary for an 
enormous volume, which, per¬ 
haps, no publisher could be urged to undertake. The species are so numerous 
that every clime has received from God the cheerful blessing of song birds, 
which vie with the flowers for supremacy in the esteem of mankind. How 
strange the fact, that among the most gorgeous-plumaged birds of the world we 
find no songsters ; that those of sweetest tongue are almost invariably birds of 
sombre feathers. The fable of the peacock’s cry to Jupiter applies not only to 
that creature but to all birds quite as well; but while the woods are filled with 
the trilling melody of sweet singers that charms our ears, our eyes are not 
slighted, for on every side of sylvan dale, on bush, tree, ground and stem, sit 
or flit the most brilliant creatures, which represent the scenery of the world’s 
theatre as the song birds represent nature’s orchestra. We cannot all be actors, 
some must be spectators, others scene shifters, and the bright-plumaged birds 
play a no less important part than the singers, because they lend an equal 



THE LIVING WORLD. 




charm to the woods, and incite alike our admiration and thankfulness to a 
Creator so generous of His gifts to please the eye and ear of His children. 

Only comparatively few of the songsters can here be described, but those 
thus introduced are eminently representative of the most interesting species 
found generally in civilized countries, and especially in North America. 

The Starling ( Sturnus vulgaris) is found in nearly all temperate climes, 
but is most numerous in Britain and Europe. It is gregarious, going in flocks 
of several hundred, under control of a leader. The nest of this bird is a crude 
affair, and built in a variety ,of places, sometimes on 
the ground, or even in deserted rabbit burrows, or in 
pigeon cotes, forming a ready affiliation with any other 
variety. It is an amiable and interesting pet, being 
easily taught to speak with the facility and distinctness 
of a parrot, and combines with this faculty a marvel¬ 
lously instinctive judgment. It has a great affection for 
its offspring, which is admirably illustrated by the fol¬ 
lowing anecdote : A barn, in which a starling had her 
young, caught on fire, an incident which the bird was 
first to discover, and at once she flew about in mad dis¬ 
traction, as if trying to call attention and help from 
persons in the vicinity. As the flames grew nearer 
her young, and perceiving that they were about to 
perish, she flew through the smoke and seizing one of 
starling. the fledglings bore it in her beak to a place of safety, 

returning immediately after another, and in this way 
she removed her entire brood of five to another spot where they 'were deposited 
together, and a new nest formed for their comfort. In its habits the starling 
is very similar to our common cow birds, though its plumage is very handsome. 

The Cross-bill ( Loxia curvirostris) is 
native to both America and Europe, where 
it is found in considerable numbers, being 
sparrow-like in both size and habits. This 
bird is remarkable for the very curious 
shape of the bill, the upper and lower 
mandibles completely crossing, giving it 
an awkward ahd mal-formed appearance, but 
which, in fact, is a remarkable adaptation 
to the feeding habits which nature has de¬ 
signed it to practise. The jaws are very 
muscular, and by the peculiar form of its 
bill the bird is able to bite an apple through 
the centre and extract the seeds therefrom, 
or shell the seeds out of pine cones, or even 
to break the shell of hard almonds. The 
young of the cross-bill do not exhibit the 
peculiar formation of bill noticeable in the 
parent birds. 

The Bullfinch (. Pyrrhula vulgaris) may hardly be called a wild bird, for it 
exists in no country in any considerable number, being rather a distinctively 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


327 


cage bird, like the canary. Besides, in its natural state the bullfinch is rather 
an uninteresting bird, against which the charges have been laid of denuding 
fruit trees of their flowers, through no other than merely mischievous propen¬ 
sities. In domestication the bird is wonderfully interesting, and is the most 
highly prized of all feathered pets. Before taken into captivity its notes are 
only a simple chirrup, but in bondage it develops really marvellous powers of 
imitation, easily learning to whistle even complicated operatic airs, with a soft, 
flute-like melody. In order to develop this interesting faculty, the bird must be 
taken when young, and immediately after feeding be given its lessons, which 
consist in the playing on some soft instrument (the flageolet is preferable) the 
airs it is desired that the bird should learn. 

The bullfinch manifests a loving disposition towards some persons, and an 
inconceivably violent hatred towards others without any apparent reason. Many 
anecdotes are reported illustrative of both these qualities, one of which relates 
that a bullfinch actually died of love for its beautiful mistress who refused to 
return its affection. Such stories, however, are unreliable, and not worthy of 
insertion in a book of this character, 
usually in a thick hazel copse attached 
to the side of a slender branch, and 
deposits therein five eggs, beautifully 
marked with purple and brown streaks, 
and a ring of greenish white on the 
larger end. The bird, which is about 
six inches long, is of a slaty-gray on 
neck and back, while the head, cov¬ 
erts of tail and wing are black and 
tips of wing white. 

The Kernel-biter, or Grosbeak 
(Coccothraustes vulgaris ), belongs to a 
family of which our common red bird 
(Cardinalis Virginian us) , also called 
crested red bird and Virginia night¬ 
ingale, is a member. The former species, however, is a native of Europe, 
where it sometimes appears in flocks of twenty or more. It is a very shy 
bird, with dull plumage and monotonous notes. The name kernel-bird has 
been given on account of its habits of feeding, in which it is so voracious as 
to swallow the seeds of such fruit as cherries and plums. There are six 
different species, none of which are very interesting. 

The Chaffinch [Fringilla ccelebs ), or Bachelor Finch, is a distinctively 
English bird, and a merry little fellow he is, too. After the breeding _ season, 
the males and females separate by voluntary divorcement, and so remain until • 
the next mating time, on which account the name bachelor has been applied. 4 
His merry notes and pinck, pinck , do not serve to establish him in the 
favor of gardeners, upon whose crops he makes serious invasions, being as 
bold in his thievery as is the sparrow. The nest which this, bird con¬ 
structs is a marvel of neatness and ingenuity, being composed of moss, wool 
and hair admirably interwoven and lodged in the main fork of a tree, where 
it is most difficult to detect, being of the colors of its surroundings, so as to 
form an almost perfect simulation to the tree branches. 


This bird, in freedom, builds its nest 



snow finch (Pledrophanes nivalis) and gold¬ 
finch (Emberizi citrinella ). 


328 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



The Goldfinch {F. carduelis) is much more charming than his congener, 
both in color and habits, and is a very popular English pet. Its natural 
haunts are about houses, and captivity destroys none of its graces, but rather 
promotes its faculties of charming entertainment. No bird can be taught so 
easily, which accomplishment is turned to good account by bird fanciers, who teach 
it a great variety of amusing tricks, such as firing a cannon, whistling at the 
word of command, simulating death, performing on the trapeze, etc. It is a 
sweet singer, and is beautifully arrayed in a variegated plumage; about the bill 

is crimson, head and neck 
a jet black, sides of face, 
white, back and breast 
grayish-brown. 

The nest of tins, gold¬ 
finch is generally located 
near the tip of a branch 
bearing a thick foliage, 
and is so artfully made 
to assimilate with the 
surroundings as to be 
most difficult of detection; 
nor does the bird fly to or 
from her nest directly, 
always creeping some dis¬ 
tance along the branch 
before taking flight. 

The Girlitz (Serinns 
hortulanus) is a native 
of southern Europe, and 
bears a close resemblance 
to the canary. It is a 
garden bird with pretty 
markings of black spots 
and stripes over a ground 
color of pale green. The 
points of the wings and 
tail are also black. It 
has a soft note varying 
from a chirrup to an oc¬ 
casional twitter. 

The Magpie {Pica 
candata ) is an American 
bird, and confined largely 
to the United States. A species called the Yellow-bellied Magpie is also 
found in Europe, an identity of habits being observable in the two. It is a 
daring bird, of an omnivorous appetite, eating carrion, smaller birds, eggs, the 
young of quails, rats, frogs, mice, snails, caterpillars, etc., and has such a raven¬ 
ing desire for fresh meat that it will attack the galled places that may be 
exposed on horses and mules. It is a cunning and intelligent bird, easily 
tamed and with but little care may be taught to whistle any air, or to talk 


GROUP OF FINCHES. CROSS-BEAK, RED BUEEFINCH, KERNEE-BITER, 
CHAFFINCH AND GIREITZ. 











THE LIVING WORLD. 


329 


fairly well. Its nesting place is usually a thicket, or close fork of a large tree. 
The nest is built with great care, of fine and coarse sticks interlaced and 
then cemented with clay, and of 
spherical shape, with a hole 
through the centre from which the 
head and tail protrude. 

Magpies are frequently men¬ 
tioned in ancient history, and they 
have a conspicuous place in 
mythology. Ovid writes of an in¬ 
teresting family of young ladies 
who were changed into magpies: 

‘ And still their tongues went on, 
though changed to birds, 

In endless clack, and vast desire 
of words.” 


The Greeks and Romans dedi¬ 
cated the magpie to Bacchus, 
because of the garrulity that drink 

incites. raven ( Corvus corax ) and magpie. 

The Blackbird (Tardus vul¬ 
garis) is of great variety, and found in both the old and new world. The 
Crow Blackbird (Quiscalus purpureus ) is found in immense flocks nearly 
everywhere in the United States and Mexico, where it ravages the fields and is 
a very pest to farmers. The Red Shouldered ( Agelaius phoeniceus) is equally 
common, though it does not associate in large flocks, and is generally found 
in the company of other species, such as the crow blackbird and cow-bird. 
Its notes are musical but rather melancholy. 

The Cow-bird ( Molothrus pecoris) has 
nothing to recommend it to favor, but much 
to condemn. The males are polygamous 
and the females are cuckolds, depositing 
their eggs in other birds’ nests when the 
rightful owner is temporarily absent, and 
imposing all the labor of rearing the you'ng 
on the foster-parents. 

The Cat-bird ( Mimus carolinensis ) is 
very numerous in nearly every part of the 
United States, and is one of the earliest 
arrivals of. spring. It is of a dull lead color, 
and gives out a very disagreeable note, re¬ 
sembling the mew of a cat, until the breed¬ 
ing season is nearly past, when the male 
pours forth a rich, warbling melody almost 
rivalling the mocking-bird. 
blackbird and nightingale. The Nightingale ( Sylvia luscinia ) is 

confined to the old world, appearing in Eng¬ 
land in the early spring, and retiring to the south early in the fall. It is 
about the size of our cat-bird, and of scarcely more attractive plumage, the 



330 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


tipper parts of the body being a russet-brown, and the breast and abdomen 
a grayish-white. The nest is made of grass and leaves, with little regard 
for appearances or strength, and is usually lodged in the low branches of a 
tree or on some shrubbery. The eggs are of an olive-brown and usually 
five in number. The nightingale is the sweetest singer of European birds, 
though at times, like the cat-bird, its cry is very unmusical. 

The Brown Thrush (Harporhynchus rufus) is the American rival of the 
nightingale, whose notes he can almost equal. This bird comes to us in May 
and may then be found always in pairs in nearly every thick hazel copse, where 
it generally builds its nest, though sometimes a spot on the ground is selected, 
in which usually four eggs mottled with brown specks are deposited. It sings 
generally during early morn, and sometimes will pour forth its rich melody for 

hours, making the woods 
ring with its charming in¬ 
strumentation. The thrush 
is noted also for its attach¬ 
ment and affection for its 
young, in whose defence it 
will brave any danger. 
The color is a brown on 
the back, hackled with 
white on the breast. 

The Mocking Bird 
(.Mimus polyglottis ) is be¬ 
yond compare the most pro¬ 
ficient minstrel in all the 
world’s feathered orchestra. 

Its home is the new 
world, being found in North 
and South America, but 
rarely above latitude 40°, 
and being numerous only 
far south of this line. It 
is not a bird of bright plu¬ 
mage, but the ease and 
gracefulness of his motions, 
the nervous throbbing of 
his wings, and the joyous 

animation displayed while warbling and trilling his varied lays, mark him as a 
creature of surprising intellect and extraordinary accomplishments. He possesses 
a voice capable of almost inconceivable modulation, ranging a gamut measurable 
by all the sounds between the gentle “ cheep ” of the sparrow to the harsh scream 
of the eagle; from the soft pianissimo to the multisonus , a perfect diapason of har¬ 
mony. In his native groves among the magnolias at morning’s dawn, when 
the wood is already vocal with a multitude of songsters, his’ voice rises pre¬ 
eminent above every competitor. His expanded wings and tail, glistening with 
white, and the buoyant gaiety of his actions arresting the eye as his song 
most irresistibly does the ear, he sweeps round with enthusiastic ecstasy, and 
mounts or descends as his song swe.lls or dies away. While thus exerting 



BROWN THRUSH. 





THE LIVING WORLD. 


33 i 


himself, a bystander destitute of sight would suppose that the whole feathered 
tribe had assembled together on a trial of skill, each striving to produce his 
utmost effect. He often deceives the sportsman and sends him after game birds 
that remain invisible; even birds themselves are deceived by this marvellous 
mimic and are decoyed by the fancied calls of their mates, or dive with precipi¬ 
tate haste into the depths of thickets at the scream of what they believe to be 
the sparrow-hawk. Again, he whistles a call that starts a dog to his master, or 
chirrups like a young chicken in 
distress, and causes the hen to 
hurry with bristling feathers and 
hanging wings to her injured brood. 

He imitates the creak of a wheel¬ 
barrow, the cluck of a hen, the 
“putrack ” of a guinea fowl, or may 
be taught to whistle an air. In 
short, the voice of all varieties of 
the feathered kind is perfectly imi¬ 
tated by this wondrous musician. 

The nest of the mocking bird 
is generally built in hedges or thorn 
bushes, of weeds, sticks, straws and 
grass, and lined with fine fibrous 
roots, in which usually four eggs 
are laid. The bird is very coura¬ 
geous in defence of its nest and 
young, and has been known to 
assail, with fatal effect, large black 
snakes that attempted to devour 
the brood. Occasionally two broods 
are hatched in one year, those of 
the first, however, being much 
larger. 

The Baltimore Oriole (Orio- 
lus baltimore ), (so called from the 
orange and black of its plumage, 
those being the heraldic colors of 
Lord Baltimore), is also peculiar to 
the United States, distributed as 
far north as Minnesota, though 
appearing only in the summer sea¬ 
son. As soon as the warm airs . 

of April begin to start the verdure the orioles come northward m pairs and 
begin at once preparations for rearing a brood. The nesting habits of this bird 
are particularly interesting, as its soft warbling notes are charming. In the 
far south the nest is made penduline of Spanish moss, so loosely woven as to per¬ 
mit the air to circulate freely through it. In the Northern States, it is hung upon 
the extremities of widespreading branches, invariably at high altitudes, and 
where it has perfect exposure to the sun. In weaving its nest tho. oriole ties 
the materials that compose it to the branch, dexterously using its bill and feet 



NEST OF THE BALTIMORE ORIOLE. 


332 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




for that purpose, and giving to it the shape of a hanging-bag, or old-fashioned 
purse-bag, leaving a hole near the top for entrance, and the interior lined with 
the softest texture. In making its nest the oriole seizes any material suitable 
to the purpose. An anecdote is related to illustrate the bird’s propensity for 
selecting soft lining for the nest. A lady in Connecticut was sitting beside 
an open window sewing, when being called away for a few moments, she 
returned to find that her spool of silk thread and measuring tape were missing. 
Diligent search failed to discover the articles until by accident she saw the tape 
hanging from the nest of an oriole that had built in a tree near by. At the 
expense of much trouble, incited by curiosity, the nest was recovered, when it was 
found that the silk had been woven into it with such dexterity as made it 
impossible to disentangle. The female lays four, five or even six eggs, of a 
light gray color with dark spots and lines, which are hatched in a fortnight. 

Wall-Creeper ( Tichodroma muraria ) is the name given to a very common 
little bird widely distributed over both Europe and America. It seldom perches 

on a branch, but is continuously circumambulating 
the trunk of some tree in industrious search for in¬ 
sects, and is most useful to farmers for the destruction 
it occasions to harmful grubs, caterpillars and noxious 
flies. It nests in April, building in a crevice or hole 
after the manner of woodpeckers, and usually lays five 
eggs of white. Its note is a merry “ chuck-chuck ,” 
but only occasionally uttered, nor does it remain long 
on any tree, but keeps flitting from one to another 
in apparently nervous distraction. It is of a dun 
color on the back, with breast of white. Another 
species, sometimes called speckled woodpecker , and 
fly-snapper , is also plentifully distributed over the 
Northern States, and is equally useful in ridding 
trees of harmful insects. It is considerably larger 
than the wall-creeper , and is handsomely clothed in 
a raiment of white and black, so as to present a 
speckled appearance. Other species include the red¬ 
head woodpecker , yellow-hammer and wood hen , also 
This latter species is a very large bird, almost equal 
to a pigeon, but is nowhere plentiful and is very wary. The color is black, 
with a top-not of scarlet, and has a neck of considerable length which makes 
its crest appear more prominently. It builds its nest always in the dead branch 
of a very tall tree, beyond the reach of interruption, for which reason few of 
its eggs have ever been recovered. The yellow-hammer may be classed among 
our prettiest birds, in a plumage diversified with yellow wings spotted with 
black, a white breast similarly flecked, a black gorget crescent-shaped, and a 
spot of red upon the head. Both the giant woodpecker and the yellow-hammer 
are esteemed for their flesh, but the other species are rejected as being wholly 
unfit for food. Not only is the flesh of nearly all the species unpalatable, but 
they are generally found to be infested with parasites, besides giving off a 
rather offensive odor. The general habits of all the genera are very similar, 
and the birds are so well known to my readers as to render more particular 
description unnecessary. 



WALL-CREEPER. 


called giant woodpecker. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


333 


The Nut-cracker (. Nucifraga caryoca fades) is peculiar to Europe, and 
though classed by Brockhaus among the singing birds, it rather belongs to 
the crow genera. The nest of this species is made at the extremity of a 
long tunnel cut in the wood of a decaying tree, either originally dug by the 
bird, or altered and adapted to its purpose. The eggs usually number five 
and are of a grayish color. The body is of 
a warm brown color flecked with white spots. 

America also possesses a species of nut¬ 
cracker scientifically known as nucifraga 
Columbiana. It has a rather attractive plu¬ 
mage and formidable claws, though not strictly 
a carnivorous bird. It is most commonly 
met with near the sea shore, where it is 
sometimes seen in large and very noisy flocks. 

The Blue Jay ( Cyanurus cristatus) is 
a noisy inhabitant of the United States and 
has his congeners in nearly all countries 
of the globe. It is a beautiful bird but is 
in great disfavor on account of its preda¬ 
ceous habits. On account of the great num¬ 
ber of acorns it consumes, this being a favorite 
food in Germany, it is called the Acorn Bird 
(Garrulus glandarius) . He is a regular visi¬ 
tor to gardens and orchards, where he 
regales his appetite on cherries, berries, peas, and in fact nearly everything 
that grows. He also takes the part of a sentry and gives noisy notice of 
the proximity of an owl, hawk, weasel, marten or rat, and is hated by sportsmen 
because of his raising a hue-and-cry in the woods at the sight of a hunter, 
giving alarm to all game that may be within the sound of his voice. The jay 
is as predaceous as the magpie, robbing other birds’ nests, not only of their eggs 

but also devouring their young. The nest of 
the jay is a rude affair constructed of coarse 
sticks lined with grasses. The eggs are gen¬ 
erally five in number, of an olive-brown, marked, 
with dark spots. 

Finches. There are no less than forty-four 
species of the finch in North America, and almost, 
as great a variety in Europe, and a dozen or- 
more in Asia. There is great similarity in size, 
but no little diversity in color and habits. The 
Siberian Finch, for example, is a most stupid 
bird, thrusting its head into the grass at the 
sight of an enemy and leaving the body exposed, 
like the ostrich; the plumage, too, is dull and un¬ 
inviting. The Bearded Finch ( Amadina fascinata ), on the other hand, is a 
bird of extraordinary activity and cunning, of exquisite plumage, and a charm¬ 
ing singer. The Snow Finch (. Plectrophanes nivalis) is nearly white, an 
inhabitant of northern regions, and has a very feeble voice. The Golden 
Finch ( Emberiza citrinella) is a most charming little bird, with rich mellow- 



saffron finch ( Reg ulus cristatus). 



NUT-CRACKER AND ACORN BIRD. 



334 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



notes, but is a great pest to farmers, though extremely shy in its habits. 
The species in this country are generally familiar about our doors, and are held 
in high favor for their pretty songs and their usefulness in devouring harmful 
insects. 

The Titmouse is represented by twenty-four species in America, and an 

equally large variety dis¬ 
tributed throughout other 
parts of the world. They, 
too, bear a striking family 
resemblance, being dis¬ 
tinguishable from other 
birds by their sharp, 
strong beaks, boldly de¬ 
fined color of plumage, 
and a nervous, incessant 
movement, as if it were 
impossible for them to 
remain quiet a moment. 
The claws are sharp and 
strong, enabling them to 
cling to the under part 
of small branches, or 
hang suspended from £he 
bottom of an apple while 
feasting on the fruit. 
Their appetite, however, 
is omnivorous, as they 
feed alike on seeds, fruit, 
insects, and have a special 
fondness for fresh meat. 
They generally build their 
nests in the hollows of a 
tree stump, or the crevice 
of a wall, in which some¬ 
times as many as a dozen 
whitish-gray eggs are laid. 
There are noticeable ex¬ 
ceptions to this rule, how¬ 
ever, as some species rival 
the oriole or tailor-bird in 
group op titmice. the wonderful construc¬ 

tion of their nests. 

The great titmouse , the blue titmouse , the long-tailed titmouse , the coal 
titmouse , and the marsh titmouse , are common in England and other parts of 
Europe. The crested titmouse is found in the northern parts of Europe. The 
bearded titmouse , plentiful in Holland, has tufts of black feathers pendent like 
whiskers from the sides of its face. The yellow-checked titmouse is an Asiatic 
bird, found chiefly among the Himalayas. It is a very queerly-marked bird, 
the cheeks and whole under-surface of the body being pale-yellow, the flanks 






THE LIVING WORLD. 


335 



having a greenish hue; the wings gray, mottled with black and white; the 
tail black, with a slight edging of bottle-green, and the rest of the plumage of 
a jetty black. The rufous-belliecL titmouse is found in southern India and 
Nepaul. 

The cape titmouse is one of the most ingenious builders of the family, 
native to South Africa, and is noted for the peculiar shape of its nest, as may be 
seen in the illustration. The nest is in the shape of a bottle, and is made of 
cotton. The male constructs for 
himself a saucer-like pocket on the 
outside of the neck, while the in¬ 
terior is given to the female and 
her brood. While the mother is 
in the nest the father sits in his 
little sentry-box faithfully guarding 
the family safety. Instantly the 
mother leaves her little brood, the 
father, wishing to accompany her, 
closes up the narrow entrance of 
the bottle by beating it with his 
strong little wings till his end is 
accomplished. 

The Penduline Titmouse is 
also noted for its nest-building skill. 

This nest, suspended from the 
branches of trees, has exactly the 
form of a chemist’s retort, but in¬ 
stead of being built of hard mate¬ 
rial only fine moss and down enter 
into its composition. The opening 
is woven with such care that not 
one fibre projects beyond another. 

How this bird, while on the wing, 
enters the inverted neck of the nest 
it is difficult to tell, as the open¬ 
ing has scarcely the diameter of its 
body. But it darts in at full 
flight and without disturbing a 
single fibre. 

In the United States the two nest of cape titmouse ( Parus capensis). 

most common and interesting 

species are the Black Capped Titmouse, more commonly called Chicadee 
(Parus atricapillus) , and the Crested Titmouse (Lophophanes bicolor ) whose 
merry notes of peter , peter , peter , make all the woods cheerful. These two are 
commonly seen together, associated often with the brown creeper and spotted 
woodpecker, all of which varieties exhibit wonderful activity in the search for 
food. The two species named are very like in habits, both building their nests 
in an abandoned squirrel-hole, or fashioning their habitation, at the expense of 
great labor, by excavating into decayed tree branches, and both also lay five 
white eggs. The crested titmouse is often called tomtit , and though small is a 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


336 

most courageous bird, and fights desperately with both beak and claw. He is 
also very curious to explore mysteries, and at such a time acts in a truly comi¬ 
cal way. Upon one occasion while in the woods I saw a pair of titmice flitting" 
from branch to branch and filling the air with their musical calls of peter, peter , 
peter , when out of curiosity I attempted an imitation of their notes. As often as 
they sang I whistled in response, when presently I saw them drawing gradually 

nearer. Thus encouraged I con¬ 
tinued to answer their calls until 
they came so near me that I could 
almost reach them with my hand.. 
All this time they hopped cheerily 
about looking at me in an exceed¬ 
ingly droll manner, cocking their 
heads in many positions, as if 
afraid to trust the vision of either, 
eye. In this manner we continued, 
to watch each other until I became 
tired of the amusement. 

House Wren ( Troglodytes * 
parvulus). This charming little 
bird is common throughout the 
United States, and though a greater 
number seem to migrate to warmer- 
latitudes in the fall, a few remain 
and may be seen in mid-winter as 
far north as Missouri. It ranks 
next to the humming-bird in 
size, but though most diminutive- 
of body, it pours forth, at breeding 
time, very shrill and loud notes, 
resembling “ chippery , chippery ,. 
chipperyP chip , with a liquid in¬ 
tonation which cannot be imitated 
by letters. It is very sociable 
and prefers to build in or near 
human habitations. They have 
been known to build in the sleeve- 
of a coat hung against a wall, or 
even in old hats. If the cavity 
they select be too large, they fill 
the unused space with sticks or other convenient material, leaving an entrance 
barely large enough to admit their wee bodies. In the centre of this mass a. 
hemispherical nest is constructed, compact in its architecture, composed of fine 
material and warmly lined with feathers and the fur of animals. The eggs are 
usually seven in number, with a white ground thickly blotched with small 
spots of reddish-brown. The wren is insectivorous, and one of the most useful 
friends to the farmer. 

Shrikes ( Lanius collurio) are represented in America by two species, the 
Loggerhead and the White-rumped, the former being found chiefly in the South- 



nest of penduune titmouse ( Parus pendulinus). 









THE LIVING WORLD. 


337 


ern States, while the latter extends its range as far north as Wisconsin. The 
former is much the handsomer bird, so closely resembling the mocking bird that 
it is frequently mistaken for that species. The latter is distinguished by its 
darker color on the upper parts, and a white rump. Neither of these are very 
musical, but the European congeners, especially the Great Gray Shrike (.Lanins 
excubitor ), is noted for its imitative powers and charming notes. All members 
of the shrike family have a remarkable habit of impaling their prey on thorns 
or other sharp points, for what purpose naturalists have never been able to 
determine. They subsist chiefly on insects, 
but sometimes take their prey from among 
smaller birds, reptiles and mice. Fre¬ 
quently the prey is killed and eaten upon 
the spot, but as often it is conveyed to a 
neighboring thorn tree and there impaled, 
where it is very often suffered to remain 
until entirely decayed. Even in captivity 
this same propensity is exhibited, on which 
account it is commonly called the Butcher 
Bird. The nest is large and coarsely 
constructed, and usually located in a low 
tree-top, among vines which offer some 
concealment. 

The Indigo Blue Bird (Cyanospiza 
cyanea ) is found everywhere between the latitudes of Mexico and Nova Scotia, 
and is one of our prettiest birds, in addition to which charms is a sweet voice, 
though of brief compass. It delights in perching high up on the small limbs 
of a lofty tree and singing its many notes, like a praise offering to the Deity. 
The color is changeable, but during the months of May, June, July and August, 
the male is clothed in a plumage of bright indigo, but later in the season 

the color is changed to a blue, then light 
green, and towards winter to a dull brown. 
It builds its nest in dense grass, generally 
between upright stems, suspended on either 
side, and is constructed of grasses and other 
fibrous material. The eggs are five in num¬ 
ber, of a deep blue, with purple blotch on the 
larger end. Its food is seeds and insects. 
Varieties are also found in Europe. 

Cedar Bird (Ampelis cedr or uni ), also 
called Cherry Bird, is found breeding in 
every State of the Union. It associates in 
flocks of considerable size and is partial 
to cedar trees, off the berries of which it 
largely feeds. It also strips the mountain ash with such voracity that it some¬ 
times becomes helpless from over fullness. The size is that of the crested 
titmouse, which it resembles in having a similar crest of .erectile feathers, the 
plumage’, however, is more attractive. It also feeds off cherries and other small 
fruits but prefers certain insects, the canker-worm being its choice of food. It nests 
in July and lays five eggs of a light slate color, marked with purple blotches. 



HOUSE, OR JENNY WREN. 



CRESTED TITMOUSE. 


33§ 


THE LIVING WORLD. 





Dotted Fly-Snapper ( Musicapa grisola ). This is a European species par¬ 
ticularly plentiful in England and Ire¬ 
land, but several representatives of the 
genus are common in the United States 
under the names of gnat catchers and 
warblers. They are all small birds with 
no special markings or particularly in¬ 
teresting habits. Their song is generally 
a simple note, such as tree , tree, tree , or a 
compound, resembling te de ter-itsea, te 
derisca, a striking resemblance to the 
notes of the chicadee. They are all ex¬ 
pert fly-catchers. 

Robin Redbreast (Pipilo erythroph- 
speckl,ed titmouse. thalmus) , also called Joree , Red-eyed 

ground robin, Towhee bunting , and many 
other local names, is a familiar bird everywhere east of the Rocky Mountains. 
It is a bird of attractive plumage, of 


black, chestnut and white, and of soci¬ 
able habits, in addition to which fea¬ 
tures it possesses a sweet voice of 
great tenderness, so that from the 
earliest times it has ever been re¬ 
garded with special favor by man. 

The story of the Babes in the Woods, 
and particularly that portion wherein 
is so pathetically described the tender 
offices of the robins that covered the 
bodies of the little children has, no 
doubt, greatly helped to increase the 
esteem in which these birds are held, 
but they have many qualities to com¬ 
mend them not found in fiction. They associate in pairs until the time for 

migrating, when as many as a 


D3TTED FLY-SNAPPER. NECKLACE FLY-SNAPPER. 


score may be seen together. Like 
the wren, however, some few re¬ 
main in the Middle States through¬ 
out the year. The song it utters ! 
may be represented by the words, 
towhee , towhee, twice repeated; but ] 
sometimes it is more musical, and : 
trills out, fs/id-witee-te-te-te-te . I 
The robin redbreast builds its nest 
in a natural depression, even with 
the surrounding surface, filling the 
cavity with coarse material, and : 
little or no lining is used. Great 
care is taken to conceal the nest, which is usually under an overhanging tuft 
of grass. Five eggs are laid, of a pale flesh color, speckled with dots of brown. 


ROBIN REDBREAST. GARDEN RED-TAIL. 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


339 



The Ground Robin ( Erythacus rubecula). This bird is more properly the 
robin redbreast , and is so designated in Europe, for the breast is a pale red, 
which color is continued about the throat, chin, forehead and around the eyes. 
This bird is very common in the United States, usually found in fallow fields, 
but also visits the city parks. In size and habits it is identical with the joree 
robin, but is more sociable, and quick 
to adopt the friendship of man. The 
nest is usually built in the same man¬ 
ner as that of the joree, but a little 
encouragement will cause it to build 
in a room, and become the voluntary 
pet of a family. While insectivorous, 
it ,also exhibits queer tastes, being ex¬ 
tremely fond of butter, tallow, cream 
and fat meat, and, to procure these, will 
not hesitate to act the part of a thief. 

The Garden Red-tail ( Rucitilla 
phoenicura ) is native to Europe, as is 
his congener, the Black Cap Red Start 
(R. tethys). They are both excellent 
singers, with notes sometimes resem¬ 
bling those of the nightingale. The black cap red start. 

names are derived from the ruddy 

chestnut color of the tail-feathers of the former, and the black feathers of the' 
latter. Their flight is rather eccentric, and not unlike our common snowbird 
and brown wren, - starting out of hedges when little expected, and, after a 
flight of a few feet, darting back again into the thickest parts,.where they find 
concealment. Their nests are usually built in the hollow of a tree or the 

crevice of an old wall. 



The Ortolan, or Wheat Ear 

(Saxicola oenanthe') also called Stone 
or Fallow Chat , is occasionally met 
with on the Atlantic coast of onr 
country, but only as a stray, its 
home being in the old world, 
where it is widely distributed. 
Though a small bird, and a fair 
singer, its flesh is so highly es¬ 
teemed in England, that great num¬ 
bers are taken and sold in the 
market. Its habit of taking refuge 
under a stone, tuft of grass, or any 
object that seems to offer shelter, 
at the least alarm, is taken advantage of by hunters to capture it by laying 
snares before such places. The chat builds its nest in deep crevices of rocks, 
and otherwise affects a partiality for stones, even his notes bearing a striking 
resemblance to the sound produced in breaking stones with a hammer. He is 
believed, by ignorant people, to be a sure precursor of death, on which account 
he is mercilessly persecuted. One of the principal reasons'for this strange 


340 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




superstition, is the fact that the chat often builds its nest under stones in bury- 
ing-grounds, and may be commonly seen in cemeteries, where it utters its 
doleful notes from the top of a heap, beneath which a dead body reposes. 

The White Wagtail (. Motacilla alba) is also a European bird, but a single 
species of which, the Yellow Wagtail (M. sulphurea ), has been found on the 
Western Continent, and this in Alaska. The Pied (M. yarrellii) and Gray 
Wagtail (M. campestris ) are also natives of Europe, and all the several species 

are . distinguishable alone by variation 
in color. They haunt the sea-shore, 
much after the manner of snipes, but 
they build their nests in the hollow of 
trees or, like the chats , in heaps of 
stones, and infrequently in brush heaps. 
They take their name from the constant 
flitting, or wagging, motion of the tail 
when not in flight. 

Larks. America is the habitat of 
several species of the lark family, which 
white wagtail. are recognizable by the great length of 

the claw of the hind toe, short and coni¬ 
cal bill, and the very long tertiary quill feathers of wing, usually being almost 
equal in length to the primaries. The Sky-lark (Alauda arvensis) is found in 
the United States, but its notes are not nearly so musical as the species found 
in England, nor is it in any respect so interesting a bird. The latter is remark¬ 
able not only for the beauty of its song, but also for the manner of its utterance, 
which is exceedingly strange. It delivers its notes always while on the wing, 
and at the moment of giving utterance the bird begins to soar upward, continu¬ 
ing its flight skyward, whistling 
all the while, until it rises entirely 
beyond the vision of a spectator. 

It is also credited with extraordi¬ 
nary intelligence, as the following 
story, related by a lady who claims 
to have been a witness, and re¬ 
peated by Woods, will testify: 

“A pair of larks had built 
their nest in a grass field, where 
they hatched a brood of young. 

Very soon after the young birds 
were out of the eggs, the owner 
of the field was forced to set the 
mowers to work, the state of the 
weather forcing him to cut his grass sooner than usual. As the laborers ap¬ 
proached the nest, the parent bird seemed to take alarm, and at last the mother- 
bird laid herself flat upon the ground, with outspread wings and tail, while the 
male bird took one of the young out of the nest, and by dint of pushing and 
pulling, got it on its mother’s back. She then flew away with her young one over 
the fields, and soon returned for another. This time, the father took his turn 
to carry one of the offspring, being assisted by the mother in getting it firmly 


crested lark ( Alvuda Cristata). 
sky lark ( Arvensis). 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


34i 


on his back ; and in this manner they carried off the whole brood before the 
mowers had reached their nest.” This is not a solitary instance, as I am ac¬ 
quainted with one more example of this ingenious mode of shifting the young, 
when the parent birds feared that their nest was discovered, and carried the brood 
into some standing wheat. Mr. Yarrell, moreover, mentions that the lark has 
been seen in the act of carrying away her young in her claws, but not on her 
back, as ‘in the previous instance. Perhaps the bird would learn the art of 
carriage by experience, for the poor little bird was dropped from the claws of its 
parent, and falling from a height of nearly thirty feet, was killed by the shock. 
It was a bird some eight or ten days old. The lark has also been known to 
carry away its eggs when threatened by danger, grasping them with both feet. 
Many other stories are related illustrative of the lark’s intuition, if not reason¬ 
ing powers, one of which has passed into the fable as “ the lark and the mower.” 
This fable, however, is no doubt based upon fact, sine? the bird has actually 
been known to remove her young during the time that the cradlers were at work 
mowing the field in which she had her nest of fledglings. I recall to mind 
the experience of a gentleman in my native town which he related to me 
many years ago, substantially as follows: “During the early part of June while 
passing through a field of ripening grain only a short distance from my 
country residence, I observed a lark as she swept over my head with a worm 
in her beak, and dropped down into the wheat some yards away. Seeing the 
worm in the bird’s mouth led me to believe that she had a nest of young 
where she settled, so out of curiosity I went to the place to discover if my 
suppositions were correct. As I drew very near the spot the old bird fluttered 
away as if badly injured, and as I did not immediately pursue her she turned 
upon her side, opened her mouth and began panting as a wounded bird in¬ 
variably does. As I started again towards her she held one wing rigid while 
with the other she continued to flutter apparently in deep distress from a 
serious injury. Perceiving that she was trying to lead me away I returned 
and found the nest in which there were five young birds not more than four 
or five days old. Having heard much concerning the maternal affections of 
the lark I determined now to test it. Accordingly I took up the young and 
carrying them to a straw stack quite near my house, made a nest and deposited 
the brood therein; I then drew off to watch results, being careful to hide with¬ 
in a stable and watch through the cracks. In a short time the mother-bird 
came to her young and in another moment flew away again. I11 about fifteen 
minutes she returned, however, bringing her mate, and the two then proceeded 
to remove their brood by each taking one at a time upon the back and carry¬ 
ing them to another part of the field, where a new nest was evidently made 

for them. I followed after the birds, after the removal was completed, and 

found, as I had expected, an improved nest, which I did not again dis¬ 

turb.” 

The Meadow Lark (Sturnella magna ), and the Shore Lark {Eremophila 
alpestris) are the two prominent species of American birds of the lark family, being 
found distributed throughout the United States from Texas to Labrador. The 
nesting habits of the several spe.cies are nearly identical, building on the ground, 
usually under a tuft of grass affording perfect concealment. The number of eggs is 
usually four, though sometimes five are laid, and the young are affectionately 
cared for by both parents until fully fledged and with full strength of wing. The 


342 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




shore-lark very much resembles the sky-lark in its habit of rising almost per¬ 
pendicularly in the air, wheeling up and up in irregular circles until nearly out 
of sight, singing at intervals a sweet song, and then descending to the very spot 
whence he rose. All larks are insectivorous, and may be numbered among 
the farmer’s most useful friends ; the shore-lark occasionally varies its food by 
visiting the shores of streams, and there feeding on small Crustacea. 

The Tree Pipit (Antkeus arbore'us), also called Tit-lark , is quite numerous 
throughout the United States, as is the American Pipit (A. ludomcianus) and 
the Meadow Pipit (A. pratensis ), the habits of which are very similar, but 
in coloring there is a marked difference. The latter, while classed as. 

a song bird, utters only a single “ tweet " 
in a feeble voice, and only while on the 
wing and at its greatest elevation. It 
is most common about waste lands, 
where small flocks assemble, and as 
these increase towards fall the waste lands 
are abandoned for cultivated fields. It 
is, perhaps, strongest of wing of all land 
birds, having been taken on board a ship 
nine hundred miles from the nearest 
shore. The color is an olive-brown, 
with wash of green on the upper parts; 
wings and tail a dark-brown sprinkled 
with white. The breast is a pale white 
with spots of brown. The tree pipit is 
so called because of its habit of perching 
upon trees, in contrast to all the other species which remain most of the time 
upon the ground, though it is not nearly so graceful on a perch as when 
tripping among the grasses. 

The song of this bird is sweeter 
and more powerful than that of the 
preceding species, and is generally 
given in a very curious manner. 

Taking advantage of some convenient 
tree, it hops from branch to branch, 
chirping merrily with each hop, and 
after reaching the summit of the tree 
perches for a few moments, and then 
launches itself into the air. Having 
accomplished this feat, the bird bursts 
into a triumphant strain of music, 
and, fluttering downwards as it sings, 
alights upon the same tree from which it had started, and by successive leaps 
again reaches the ground. The color very much resembles that of the former 
species, but the size is considerably greater. The American pipit , like the other 
species, builds its nest upon the ground under a tuft of grass, and incubation 
is performed by male and female sitting together. As might be expected from 
this habit of nesting, the pipit is an affectionate bird, devoted with singularly 
strong attachment to its mate. 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


343 


The Black-throated Bunting ( Enspiza americana) is abundant in the West, 
but rarely found east of the Alleghanies. As soon as it arrives from the South 
in the spring, it immediately begins building, generally lacing together the tops 
of long grasses and making its nest thereon, though it is sometimes known to 
build in rose-bushes and other low branches. During the summer this bird 
destroys immense numbers of caterpillars, canker-worms, and other harmful 
insects. It may be easily known by its notes, which are, chip-chip che-che-che, the 
two first syllables being uttered between pauses, and the last three rapidly. 

The Fox-colored Sparrow (. Passerella iliaca) is plentiful in the Northern 
and Western States, though it is not known to breed in this country. It is 
found in flocks of a dozen, usually haunting the outskirts of thickets and moist 
woods. They breed in the north of British America, and at this season the male 
takes on a gaudy plumage of cardinal, and develops a charming voice. It 
nests upon the ground and lays five eggs of a pale green tint, blotched with 
brown. Their food is insects and seed, and they imitate our domestic fowls, 
scratching the ground to uncover insects, seeds or other food. . 

The English Sparrow ( Passer domesticus) is at once the most numerous 
and despised bird to be found in America. Though abounding in great 
numbers in every city and town of the 
United States, it is an importation from 
Europe, first brought over about thirty 
years ago in the belief that it would 
perform most useful service towards 
exterminating tree caterpillars. Sev¬ 
eral pairs were also taken to Australia 
about the same time, under a similar 
fallacy. In former years the sparrow g 
was no doubt almost strictly insecti¬ 
vorous, but in the development of na¬ 
ture, which produces many changes, 
its appetite is no longer that of an 
insect devourer. No other bird re¬ 
produces so rapidly, since the sparrows lay from five to six eggs at each sitting, 
and raise three broods each year. This remarkable fecundity has produced results 
most annoying, which, added to its predaceous, audacious, and rapacious disposition, 
make it a proper subject for our animadversions. Australia has tried to destroy 
or reduce the number of sparrows by offering rewards for their heads and eggs; 
America will soon have to adopt similar measures, or the depredations of these 
already innumerable and rapidly multiplying pests will be incalculable. Against 
the sparrow I must prefer many serious charges: He builds under the eaves 
of our houses and chokes up our waterspouts with his nests, befouls the roofs, 
porches, walks and window-sills, litters up our yards, devours our flower seeds, 
plucks the ripening oats and wheat, keeps up a perpetual charivari about our 
• doors and makes himself an intolerable nuisance without exhibiting. one 
redeeming trait But to these charges I must add another, much more serious: 
He is not only savagely pugnacious, fighting among his own species, but he 
is a foe to all of our pretty, useful and singing birds, not only assaulting the 
parent birds, but destroying their eggs and murdering their young. This 
latter charge I make upon evidence' that cannot be refuted: In the summer ot 



SHRIKE, OR BUTCHEK-BIRD. 


344 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




1885, a robin red-breast built ber nest in an apple tree that stood within a few . 
feet of the rear door of my residence, in St. Louis. This familiarity we 
encouraged by giving her food several times each day, until she came 
to expect a regular allowance. In due time the robin laid four eggs, and 

began the interesting process of incu¬ 
bation, not the least alarmed during 
this period, even when I went within 
so close as a foot of her. In every 
respect we were friends. The brood 
was at length hatched out, and for 
more than a week my wife and 
daughters vied with the old birds in 
giving the young kindly attention. 
One morning, shortly after daylight, 

I heard a very great noise in my back 
yard, and, rising to discover the cause, 
hedge accentor. was astonished to see perhaps a score 

of sparrows making a united attack 
upon the young robins, two of which had been dragged from the nest and 
killed. I hurried down-stairs to the assistance of my pets, but before I could 
reach them the sparrows had fairly covered the poor little fledglings and 
bitten their bodies almost into a pulp. I have been told by others that such 
murderous propensities are often exhibited by these imported pests, which 
accounts largely for the rapid disappearance of our song birds. 

The Snow-bird (.Fringilla hyemails ). A few years ago these birds were so 
plentiful that flocks of a thousand or more were a common sight, and cruel 
sportsmen often fired into the swarms, merely out of curiosity to see how many 
they could kill at a single discharge of a shot-gun. Snow-bird pie became a 
favorite dish, and this led to the capture, by trapping, of so many that their 
number rapidly diminished, and now it is a rare sight to see a flock number¬ 
ing as many as a dozen. The snow-bird rarely makes its appearance 111 the 
United States before November, and migrates northward early in the spring, 
for the purpose of breeding. They nest upon the ground, after the manner of 
larks, except that, in nesting, they 
do not lose their gregariousness, 
but continue closely together. 

The Song Warblers ( Lusdninae ) 
are represented in America by no 
less than fifty-seven species. As 
their name indicates, they are noted 
for their sweet song, to which is 
added a graceful form and great 
activity of movement. In all these 
birds the beak is strong, straight 
and sharply pointed, with a notch 

on the upper mandible near the snow-bird. 

extremity. The nostrils are placed 

at the base of the beak, are pierced through a rather large membrane, and are 
protected by feathers. They are all insectivorous, and are of the greatest benefit 
to farmers and horticulturists. Their size is equal to that of a snow-bird. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


345 


The Hedge Accentor ( Accentor modular/us) is a rather rare bird in America, 
though occasionally met with in the Western States. In Europe, however, it 
is quite common. It is a small bird, about five inches long, bluish-gray on 
the back with brown streaks on the neck. The quill-feathers are of a dark- 
brown, and the abdomen white with a wash of pale buff. It haunts the habi¬ 
tations of man, and builds its nest at a low elevation, of moss, wool and hair, 
and lays five eggs of a bluish-green color. The female often lays five sets of 
eggs but rarely. raises more than a single brood. 

The Rice-bird, or Bob-o’-link [Dolichonyx orizyvoms), small of body as it is, 
nevertheless has the distinction of being a game-bird, whose flesh is very highly 
esteemed, and in season is hunted with a persistency greater than marks the 
pursuit of any other bird. He has also the further distinction of many names, 
being known in the South as Rice-bird , in the Middle States as Reed-bird, in 
the Northern States as Bob-o' -link, and locally called May-bird, Meadow-bird, 
Butter-bird, Skunk-bird (on account of the color of its plumage), and American 
Ortolan. He winters in the south, but comes north early in April, and is most 
plentiful in New York and New Jersey about the middle of May. They arrive 
usually in flocks of a dozen, and begin at once the building of their nests, 
which are located on the ground under a tussock of grass, and composed of 
small grasses rather deftly arranged, in which five or six eggs are laid, of a 
dirty-white, splotched with rufous-brown. During the season of courtship the 
male is dressed in a bright coat of black, crown of head cream color, feathers 
on the shoulder and rump white, and tip of tail feathers a pale-brownish ash. 
Towards autumn, however, his raiment seems the worse for wear, and he looks 
like a member of the shabby genteel. He now has a dull coat, two stripes 
upon his head and sides, sparsely streaked with brown. Naturalists have gen¬ 
erally given him a bad name as the devourer of wheat, barley and corn, when 
in the milky state, but while this charge may be true, the bob-o' 1 -link renders 
inestimable service in return for his depredations. He is known to feed almost 
exclusively, during the breeding season, off caterpillars, beetles, grasshoppers, 
spiders, crickets and the seeds of wild grasses. Recent investigation also proves 
that they devour immense numbers of the larvae of the cotton-worm. 

The bob-o'-link is a charming singer, whether as soloist or in concert, for 
he sings equally well whether piping to his mate or adding his voice to a 
hundred others, as they often do. But when busy with courtship, each cock 
pays court to the hen of his choice, and sings for her his most entrancing 
melody. There are few things more delightful than on a June morning, when 
all the earth and sky blend in sweetest harmony, when the scent of apple- 
blossoms has not been wholly dissipated, to lie in a soft, refreshing bed of 
luxuriant grass, and listen to the bob-o'-link's song of wooing. He sits upon a 
yielding reed a moment, then rises on trembling wing high into the air,, at.the 
same time pouring out a wonderful succession of tinkling, vibrating, ringing, 
rollicking notes, wheeling and whistling bob-o'-link, bob-o'-link, and then jangling 
off into a succession of the sweetest melody which betrays his rapture. 

Though no larger than the English sparrow, beautiful of plumage, charm¬ 
ing in manner, an exquisite minstrel, and most useful as an insect destroyer, 
yet this elegant little bird is most cruelly persecuted, millions being shot and 
trapped for the eastern markets, where they sell at a most extravagant price. 
Bryant’s poems on this bird under the title of “ Robert of Lincoln,” and the 


34* 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


prose panegyric of Washington Irving in “ Wolfert’s Roost,” have served to 
immortalize poor little bob-o 1 -link , whose numbers are so rapidly diminishing 
under the fire and nets of those who fail to appreciate the beauties and charms 
of nature. 

SINGULAR NEST BUILDING BIRDS. 

The beautiful raiment with which God has clothed the birds, and the gift 
of charming melody with which He has endowed their voices, may well excite 
our admiration, but to these gifts have been added other characteristics which 
excite our wonder, until we marvel at the diversity of attributes which distin¬ 
guish bird life. We have already described 
some of the curious phases of feathered 
creation, but it is appropriate here to group 
together a few of the birds distinguished 
especially for tlieii ingenuity in nest-build¬ 
ing, since by so doing we shall be the 
better able to comprehend the wonders dis¬ 
played in bird architecture. We will find 
many of the trades' and professions repre¬ 
sented by feathered mechanics, such as ma¬ 
sons, weavers, tailors, cooks, sextons, preach¬ 
ers, officers, criers, binders, gardeners, etc. 

The Parti-colored or Golden-crested 
Wren (Regulns cristatus ), of England, is 
scarcely larger than a humming-bird, but 
wonderfully courageous, and cunning as 
well. In an aviary, where two of these 
were kept with a hundred varieties of birds, 
they made themselves masters of the largest 
and obtained more than their share of food 
by adopting many adroit devices, the most 
curious being to sit upon the head of some 
larger ^bird, like the jackdaw, and seize the 
food at every peck the daw would make. 
It was certainly a comical sight, but scarcely 
more so than that of seeing them invariably 
go to roost by nestling in the feathers of 
the larger birds. 

The nest of this beautiful little bird is exquisitely woven of various soft 
substances, and is generally suspended to a trunk, where it is well sheltered 
from the weather. Says Woods: “ I have often found their nests, and in every instance 
have noticed that they are shaded by leaves, the projecting portion of a branch, or 
some such protection. In one case the nest that was suspended to a fir-branch 
was almost invisible beneath a heavy bunch of large cones that drooped over 
it, and forced the bird to gain admission by creeping along the branch to which 
the nest was suspended. The edifice is usually supported by three branches, 
one above and one at either side. The nest is usually lined with feathers, and 
contains a considerable number of eggs, generally from six to ten. These eggs 
are hardly bigger than peas, and extremely delicate.” 














THE LIVING WORLD. 347 

The Australian Jungle-fowl (. Megapodus ) with its congener, the bush 
turkey , is certainly the most peculiar in its nesting habits of all the birds 
on our globe. If the descriptions given of their manner of building were 
not well authenticated by naturalists who have themselves seen the nests, as 
well as observed the manner of their construction, it would be a great stretch 
of imagination to credit them. 

In several parts of Australia large mounds were discovered which for a 
long time were thought to be the work of human hands, reared above the 
remains of departed natives before Australia fell under the civilizing influ¬ 
ences of the English. Nor was this belief at once dissipated by the declara- 


NEST OF AUSTRALIAN JUNGLE-FOWL. 


tions of the natives, who declared the mounds to be artificial ovens, thrown 
up by jungle-fowls , in which their eggs are laid and hatched by the heat of 
the decaying vegetation which composed them. 

The' size of these tumuli is truly marvellous, measuring sometimes sixty 
feet in circumference at the base, and rising to a truncated cone fifteen feet in 
perpendicular height. These mounds are erected by the industrious jungle- 
fowl of earth, leaves and fallen grasses, which it partly conveys and partly 
throws with its feet, which are extremely large, for this purpose Some 
authorities state that the material is gathered in the grasp of one foot and 
carried by hopping on the other, while Woods maintains that the bird 
gathers up the grasses or leaves with its feet and throws the material back- 






THE LIVING WORLD. 


348 



wards while it stands on one foot. As this habit was observed while the bird 
was in captivity, and its range so circumscribed as to prevent the exhibition 
of all its instincts, Woods’ assertion may well be questioned, especially in the 
light of other observations to the contrary. 

The mounds are invariably protected from the full rays of the sun by 
being located within the shelter of densely leaved trees, otherwise the 

moisture of 
the heap 
would be too 
rapidly dis¬ 
pelled. When 
the mound is 
completed the 
bird digs a 
hole in the 


centre to a 
depth of six 
or seven feet, 
though the 
excavation is 
rarely verti¬ 
cal, but rather 
tortuous, and 
sometimes, 
though the 
hole may be 

seven feet deep, the eggs are not more than 
three feet below the surface. Mr. Gilbert, who 
has made a study of the habits of this bird, 
says : 

“ The birds are said to lay but a single 

egg in each hole, and after the egg is deposited, 

the earth is immediately thrown down lightly 
until the hole is filled up; the upper part of 
the mound is then smoothed and rounded over. 
It is easily known where a jungle-fowl has been recently excavating, from the 
distinct impression of its feet on the top and sides of the mound; and the 

earth being so lightly thrown over, that with a slender stick the direction of 

the hole is readily detected, the ease or difficulty of thrusting the stick down 
indicating the length of time that may have elapsed since the bird’s operations. 

u Thus far it is easy enough, but to reach the eggs requires no little 
exertion and perseverance. The natives dig them up with their hands alone, 
and only make sufficient room to admit their bodies and to throw out the 
earth between their legs. By grubbing with their fingers alone, they are 
enabled to feel the direction of the hole with greater certainty, which will 
sometimes, at a depth of several feet, turn off abruptly at right angles, its 
direct course being obstructed by a clump of wood or some other impediment.” 

Air. Gilbert upon one occasion found a jungle-fozvVs tumulus in which 
there was a single young one almost ready to leave the nest. It was the size 


SOCIABLE WEAVER BIRDS. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


349 


of a quail, and presented many characteristics of that bird. When put into a 
box with sand plentifully sprinkled on the floor, even at this early age it 
exhibited the instincts of the mature bird, and continued gathering sand in its 
claws and throwing it backward all the day long. 

The jungle-fowl ranges in the proximity of streams or the sea-beach, but 
confines itself to such dense shore thickets that it is not often seen. When 
flying the legs hang down the full length, and when frightened it utters a 
scream like the peacock. The size is that of a brahma hen, and the coloring 
a ruddy-brown. 

The Brush Tur¬ 
key (Tellegalla lat- 
hami ), also of Aus¬ 
tralia, where it is 
known by the name 
of New Holland Vul¬ 
ture, is almost identi¬ 
cal with the jungle- 
fowl in its habits, 
though greatly differ¬ 
ing in appearance. 

The head and neck 
are devoid of feathers 
and are very vulture¬ 
like, while the throat 
is covered, with naked 
fleshy wattles like the 
turkey, which it also 
resembles in size and 
the coloring of the 
body-feathers. It is a 
gregarious bird, though 
rarely appearing in 
companies of more 
than a dozen, and in 
the brushwood has all 
the characteristics of 
our wild turkey. Like 
the jungle-fowl the 
brush turkey con¬ 
structs a mound of extraordinary size, of dried grasses and other vegetable 
fibres and leaves, in which work it * employs the feet as represented in the 
engraving. Nor is the erection of a mound the work of a single bird, but of 
several, who use the nest for common deposition. After the heap is raised to 
the required size, a large hole is dug in the centre, about two feet in diameter, 
in which the hens lay their eggs, two dozen or more in number, which are 
deftly arranged in a circle with the small ends downward. They are then 
covered carefully and left to the heat generated by the decaying vegetable 
matter to hatch, which usually requires a month’s time. When the young 
breaks the shell it forces its way through the loose covering, like a young 










350 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



turtle emerging from its sandy birthplace. It remains then above ground 
•during the daytime, but is covered up again at night by the male parent-bird 
for three successive nights, when it is sufficiently developed to take wing. 

The Oven-Bird (Furndrius fuliginosus) is a rather small South American 
bird, specially distinguished for its very curious, oven-like nest, from whence 
the common name is derived. The North American species is called the Golden 
Crowned Thrush (Sciurus aurocapillus ), but the size and nesting-habits of both 
species are very similar, except that the former frequently builds its nest in 

trees, or on other elevations, of clay 
and grasses, while the latter invaria¬ 
bly, I believe, builds upon the ground 
and uses no clay in the composition 
of its nest. They are closely allied 
to the creepers, about the size of a 
lark, and are splendid climbers as 
well as runners. The nest, about 
which centres the chief interest 
connected with the bird, is generally 
shaped like an inverted kettle, or 
a bee-hive, with pntrance at the 
base. Its walls are very thick, but 
to this strengthening provision are 
added other means for increasing 
its resistance to the rough usage 
of the wind, rain or violence. If 
one of the nests be carefully di¬ 
vided, the observer will see that the 
interior is even more singular than 
the outside. Crossing the nest from 
side to side is a wall, or partition, 
made of the same materials as the 
outer shell, and reaching nearly to 
the top of the dome, thus dividing 
the nest into two chambers, and 
having also the effect of strengthen¬ 
ing the whole structure. The inner 
chamber is devoted to the work of 
incubation, and within is a soft bed 
of feathers on which the eggs are 
south AMERICAN oven bird. placed. The female sits upon them 

in this dark chamber, and the outer 
room is probably used by her mate. The reader will remember instances of 
•such supplementary nests having already been mentioned. The eggs are gen¬ 
erally four in number. 

Both sexes work at the construction of the nest, and seem to find the 
labor rather long and severe, as they are continually employed in fetching- 
clay, grass and other materials, or in working them together with their bills. 
While thus engaged they are very jealous of the presence of other birds, and 
•drive them away fiercely, screaming shrilly as they attack the intruder. 










THE LIVING WORLD. 


35i 


The Pied Grallina (Grallina australis ), of Australia, constructs a nest 
almost as curious as that of the oven-bird. This bird is a water-loving creature, 
beautifully colored with white and black, and of an extremely restless movement, 
whether wading in 
shallow brooks or hop¬ 
ping among the 
branches. Its nest is 
made of clay and vege¬ 
table fibres and lo¬ 
cated on the forks of 
a horizontal limb that 
overhangs the water. 

I 11 shape it very much 
resembles a low, large¬ 
mouthed basket, or' a 
Boston bean-pot. 

Black -Headed 
Synalaxis (5. melan- 
ops ) is found in tropi¬ 
cal America. It is a 
very active bird in the 
presence of insects, 
rapidly traversing the 
trunks of trees, peck¬ 
ing almost constantly, 
and quick to detect 
the location of a tree- 
grub, even beneath the 
bark. But, like the 
oven-bird, the synal- 
laxines are notable for 
the curious nests which 
they construct. 

Although these 
birds are of small di¬ 
mensions, they all 
build nests which 
might easily be at¬ 
tributed to the labors 
of some hawk or crow. 

The nest of one spe¬ 
cies is often from 
three to four feet in 
length, and is placed 



NEST OP beack-headed synaeaxis. 


lenoftn, ana is piacea . ^ r 

very openly in some low bush, where it escapes notice on account of its resem- 
blance to a bunch of loose sticks thrown carelessly together by the wind In its 
interior however, the edifice is very carefully made, and, like the nest of the 
oven-birds, is divided into two recesses, the eggs being laid m the inner 
apartment, upon a bed of soft feathers. 











THE LIVING WORLD. 


The Weaver Birds are all natives of tropical regions, being confined 
largely to Africa and India, though a few species are found in South America. 
So numerous are the weaver birds that they have been grouped under a 
scientific head (. Ploceida ?), and are usually described in order, though they 
present many different characteristics, which, if followed, would distribute them 
among several orders. Generally weaver birds suspend their nests to drooping 
boughs, but there are notable exceptions to this rule, as will be shown. But 
wherever built, the observer will perceive the intuition that has led the birds 
to build with a special view to protecting their young from the depredations of 
monkeys and snakes. 

All the pensile birds are remarkable for the eccentricity of shape and 

design which 
mark their 
nests; al¬ 
though they 
agree in one 
point, name¬ 
ly, that they 
dangle at the 
end of twigs, 
and dance 
about merri¬ 
ly at every 
breeze. Some 
of them are 
very long, 
others are 
very short; 
some have 
their en¬ 
trance at the 
side, others 
from below, 
and others 
again from 
near the top. 

Australian trappe. S o m e are 

hung, hammock-like, from one twig to another; others are suspended to the 
extremity of the twig itself; while others, that are built in the palms, which have 
no true branches, and no twigs at all, are fastened to the extremities of the leaves. 

There is a bird found only in Australia and called the trappe which pos¬ 
sesses not only a singular nesting habit, but is no less curious in other respects. It 
is so rare that few naturalists have recognized its existence, and none have ever 
attempted to classify it. This curious creature seems to be a cross between 
the gallinaceous and wading birds. During the strutting season the male 
makes himself an object remarkable to behold, as is seen in the engraving. It 
nests in the high grasses, but quite unlike others of the fowl species, it builds 
a very large truncated cone leaving only a shallow basin in the top for the four 
dusky colored eggs which it lays. Its size is equal to that of a guinea hen. 








THE LIVING WORLD. 


353 



A good example of the last-mentioned description of nest is the Mahali 
Weaver Bird, of South Africa (.Pliopasser mahali). Although the architect 
is a small bird measuring only six inches in total length, the nest which it 
makes is of considerable size, and is formed of substances so stout, that, when 
the edifice and the builder are compared together, the strength of the bird 
seems quite inadequate to the management of such materials. 

The general shape of the nest is not unlike that of a Florence oil-flask, sup¬ 
posing the neck to be shortened and widened, the body to be lengthened, and the 
whole flask to be enlarged to treble its dimensions. Instead, however, of being 
smooth on the exterior, like the flask, 
it is intentionally made as rough 
as possible. The ends of all the grass- 
stalks, which are of very great thick¬ 
ness, project outward, and point 
towards the mouth of the nest, which 
hangs downward; so that they serve 
as eaves whereby the rain is thrown 
off the nest. 

Perhaps the most singular look¬ 
ing nest made by these birds is that 
of a rather small, yellow-colored spe¬ 
cies (.Ploceus ocularius). This nest 
looks very like a chemist’s retort, 
with the bulb upward—or, to speak 
more familiarly, like a very large 
horse-pistol suspended by the butt. 

The substance of which it is made 
is a very narrow, stiff and elastic 
grass, scarcely larger than the ordi¬ 
nary twine used for tying up small 
parcels, and interwoven with a skill 
that seems far beyond the capabili¬ 
ties of a mere bird. 

If the hand be carefully intro¬ 
duced up the neck of one of these 
nests, its admirable fitness for the 
repose of the young birds is at once 
perceived. When merely viewed from 
the outside, the nest looks as if it 
would be a very unsafe cradle, and 

would permit the young birds to fall . I 

through the neck into the water. A section of the nest, however, shows thatj 
no habitation can be safer, and even the hand can detect the wonderfully in¬ 
genious manner in which the interior is constructed. Just where the neck is 
united to the bulb, a kind of wall or partition is made, about two inches in 
height, which runs completely across the bulb, and effectually prevents the 
young birds from falling into the neck. 

Another of this group is the Gold-capped Weaver Bird (.Ploceus ictero- 
cephalus ), The nest of this bird is notable for the extreme neatness and com. 

23 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


354 

pactness of its structure, for it can endure a vast amount of careless handling, 
and still retain its beautiful contour. A specimen in the British Museum 

taken from the banks of a river near Natal, was suspended from two reeds, 
so as to hang over the water, and at no great distance from the surface. 

The entire structure is apparently composed of the same plant, namely, a 
kind of small reed, but the materials are taken from a different portion of the 
plant, according to the part of the nest for which they are required. The 
whole exterior, as well as the walls, are made of the reed-stems, woven very 
closely together, and being of no trifling thickness. There is a considerable 
amount of elasticity in the structure, and the complete nest is so strong that it 
might be kicked down stairs, or be thrown from the top of a monument, 
without much apparent injury. The interior, however, is constructed 

after a very different fashion. Instead of the rough, strong workmanship of 
the exterior, with its reed-stems interlacing each other, as if 
woven by human art, the inside exhibits a lining of flat leaves, 
laid artistically over each other, so as to form a smooth rest¬ 
ing place, but not interlacing at all. Their color is a blue- 
ish gray, and the contrast which they present to the exterior 
is very strongly marked. In size the nest is about as large 

as an ordinary cocoanut, not quite so long, but somewhat more 

oblate. 

The Tailor Bird (Orthotomus longicaudus ), though a 
stranger to Americans, is as popularly known as the most 
prominent crowned head of Europe, on account of the fre¬ 
quency with which it is described in publications, accompanied 
by illustrations of its singular nest. 

The manner in which it constructs its pensile nest is 
very singular. Choosing a convenient leaf, generally one 
which hangs from the end of a slender twig, it pierces a row 
of holes along each edge, using its beak in the same manner 
that a shoemaker uses his awl, the two instruments being very 
similar to each other in shape, though not in material. 

When the holes are completed the bird next procures 
its thread, which is a long fibre of some plant, generally 
nest oe the tailor much longer than is needed for the task which it performs. 

bird ( Sylvia stuoria). Having found its thread, the feathered tailor begins to pass 

it through the holes, drawing the sides of the leaf towards 
each other so as to form a kind of hollow cone, the point downward. Generally 
a single leaf is used for this purpose, but whenever the bird cannot find 
one that is sufficiently large, it sews two together, or even fetches 
another leaf and fastens it with the fibre. Within the hollow thus formed the 
bird next deposits a quantity of soft white down, like short cotton wool, 
and thus constructs a warm, light and elegant nest, which is scarcely 
visible among the leafage of the tree, and which is safe from almost every foe 
except man. 

The tailor bird is a native of India, and is tolerably familiar, haunting 

the habitations of man, and being often seen in the gardens and commons 

feeding away in conscious security. It seems to care little about lofty situa¬ 
tions, and mostly prefers the ground or lower branches of the trees, and flies 



355 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



to and fro with a peculiar undulating flight. Many species of the same genus 
are known to ornithologists. 

The tailor bird is not the only member of the feathered tribe which sews 
leaves together in order to form a receptacle for its nest. A rather pretty bird, 
the Fan-tailed Warbler (Salicaria cisticolci) has a similar method of action, 
though the nest cannot be ranked among the pensiles. 

This bird builds among reeds, 


sewing together a number of 
their flat blades in order to make 
a hollow, wherein its nest may 
be hidden ; but the method which 
it employs is not precisely the 
same as that which is used by 
the tailor bird. Instead of pass¬ 
ing the thread continuously 
through the holes, and thus sew¬ 
ing the leaves together, it has 
a great number of threads and 
makes a knot at the end of each, 
in order to prevent it from being 
pulled through the hole. 

The Yellow-throated Seri- 
comis (S. citreogularis ) constructs 
its nest in bunches of Louisiana 
moss that often accumulate at the 
extremities of drooping tree 
branches. 

The Rock Warbler {Origma 

rubricata ), on the other hand, 
builds a pensile nest, generally 
suspended from a shelving rock 
overhanging a brook, and usually 
builds in societies, like the fairy 
martens. 

The Singing Honey Eater 

{Ptilotus sonorus ), the most melo¬ 
dious bird of Australia, attaches 
its nest to the long, slender, trail¬ 
ing branches of a tree called 
acacia pendula , resembling our 
weeping willows. These birds are 
also gregarious, and sometimes a 
single tree will contain more than 


NEST OF THE LONG-TAILED TITMOUSE. 

hundred of such nests, rocked by every 


gentle zephyr. - . c . 

The Swallow Dicaeum (D. hirundinaceum ), a small but very beautilul 
bird of South Wales, makes an exquisite nest of cotton-wood down, a pure 
white, which is not permitted to be soiled, and hangs it from the top of a lofty 
branch, where it looks like a beautiful purse. 

The Lanceolate Honey Eater (Plectorhynchus lanceolatus ), of England, a 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


356 

small black and white bird, builds a nest which in appearance is. almost the 
counterpart of one end of a saddle-bag when opened, the ends of which are tied 
by means of thread to extremities of a longitudinal branch, so that it is a most 
comfortable pouch in which the bird sets well concealed. 

The Golden Oriole ( Oriolus galbula ), a near relative of the Baltimore oriole, 
constructs a nest of equal neatness and ingenuity, though not so long. It is 
formed of a mesh of leaves finely interlaced in true weaver manner, in the shape 
of a circular cup, and is attached to the bifurcation of two branches by means 

of threads usually purloined from 
some neighboring dwelling. 

The Long-tailed Titmouse 
(.Parus caudatus ) constructs a nest 
quite as curious in appearance as 
his Cape cousin. It is generally 
built in some cane-bearing tree, 
nearly globular in shape, made of 
moss, with so small an opening as 
to scarcely admit the body of this 
little bird. Small as is the nest, ! 
scarcely larger than one’s fist, it 
serves to house a numerous brood, | 
there being generally ten or twelve 
young in each nest. 

The Jupuba Cassicus (Casstcus 
hcemorrhus ), of South America, im¬ 
itates our oriole in its ingenuity 
for nest building, as it imitates 
the domestic fowls of its neighbor¬ 
hood with its wonderfully flexible 
voice and power of mimicry. The 
nest is woven of grass fibres into 
a rather slim bag some two feet 
in length, with a slit in the .upper 
part for entrance. This purse-bag 
is generally suspended from the 
point of a dead limb, usually near 
a water-course, and sometimes with¬ 
in a few inches of the water. 

The Grass Weaver (. Fondia 
erythrops ), though a weaver, con¬ 
structs her nest at the expense of 
little labor, and exhibits an indiffer¬ 
ence to appearances. It is made of coarse fibres interlaced, woven into the shape 
of a cup and attached to a couple of reeds that proj ect above the water or boggy 

The Red Wing ( Turdus iliacus ) is not a weaver, but builds with no less 
skill than do birds dexterous with the needle-bill. Its nest is wrought from 
mosses, and bits of grass daintily fashioned into a beautiful cup, which is care¬ 
fully lined with mud and saliva. This lining soon dries and then bears some 



NEST OF THE GOLDEN ORIOLE. 

















THE LIVING WORLD. 


357 



resemblance to cardboard in evenness and texture. The nest is located usually 
where two forks start from the trunk of a tree, and is substantial to a degree. 

The Bob-o’-link, or Orchard Oriole (Xantkomis varius) , is a pretty bird, 
with cheerful voice and vivacious manners. Its nest, though not so large, is 
very similar to that which the Baltimore oriole constructs; indeed, there is a 
striking resemblance to the nests, and habits as well, of all the oriole family. 

The Baya Sparrow, also called Toddy Bird (Ploceus baya ), of India, is 
remarkable for the very singular nest it builds, in which respect it has but a 
single rival, in the species following, which must close our descriptions of the 
singular nest-building varieties, though the list is not nearly exhausted. The 
baya sparrow is a small species, gregarious in habits, and so extremely sociable 
that hundreds build their nests in the same tree, and get on together without 
serious wrangles, unlike their 
English relatives. The p 1 u- 
mage is a bright yellow,. with 
wings, back and tail tipped with 
brown. The acacia and date- 
tree are usually selected, from 
the smaller branches of which, 
and near the extremity, the 
nests are fixed, hanging down 
like so many bottles, the sides 
of some being provided with a 
small shelf, upon which the male 
rests while the female is hatch¬ 
ing her brood. The appear¬ 
ance of a tree, with several 
hundreds of these pensile nests 
hanging from its branches, is 
so singular that persons view¬ 
ing them for the first time 
invariably suppose the tree to 
be laden with some strange 
fruit. 

The Sociable Weaver Bird 

(Philetcerus sodas') is a native 
of Africa, notable only for the nest of grass weaver (Fondia erylhtops). 

surpassingly strange nest it con¬ 
structs, which characteristic has caused it to become one of the best known 
birds of the world, through the printed matter that has been issued concern¬ 
ing it. Like the baya sparrow, these are gregarious birds, and congregate 
their habitations in a tree, rearing by their combined labors a structure so 
laro-e that it may be seen at several miles’ distance, and, at times, so weighty 
as to break down the tree, though it is most commonly built in an acacia 
called the giraffe thorn, one of the toughest trees known. 

The sodable weaver is sometimes called the sociable grosbeak , being a 
member of the grosbeak family. It is a desert dweller, and usually selects a 
tree which, while isolated, is sheltered from the fierce storms common m hot, and 
districts. The birds are always found in very large numbers, apparently con- 





358 THE LIVING WORLD. 

trolled by a master spirit, who seems to determine the tree upon which the 
nests of his subjects shall be erected. When this is decided the birds- first pro¬ 
ceed industriously to make a thatch roof, which they perform by carrying dry 
grasses, selected from a wiry species known as boosckmanees grass, which is 
hung over the branches and ingeniously interwoven until a dome-shaped roof 
is made, so compact as to turn rain. 

On the under sides of this thatch they fasten a number of separate nests, each 
being inhabited by a single pair of birds, and only divided by its walls from the 
neighboring habitation. All these nests are placed with their mouths down¬ 
ward, so that when the entire edifice is completed, it reminds the observer very 
strongly of a common wasp’s nest. This curious resemblance is often further 
strengthened by the manner in which these birds will build one row of nests 
immediately above or below another, so that the nest groups are arranged in 
layers precisely similar to those of the wasp or hornet. The number of habita¬ 
tions thus placed under a single roof is often very great. Le Vaillant mentions 

that in one nest which he examined there were 
three hundred and twenty inhabited cells, each of 
which was in the possession of a distinct pair of 
birds, and would at the close of the breeding sea¬ 
son have quadrupled their numbers. 

The sociable weaver bird will not use the same 
nest in the following season, but builds a new 
house, which it fastens to the under side of its 
previous domicile. As, moreover, the numbers of 
the nests are always greatly increased year by 
year, the weaver birds are forced to enlarge their 
thatched covering to a proportionate extent, and in 
course of years they heap up so enormous a quantity 
of grass upon the branches that the tree fairly 
gives way with the weight, and they are forced- 
to build another habitation. So large is this thatch¬ 
like covering, that Harris was once deluded by the 
distant view of one of these large nests with the 
belief that he was approaching a thatched house, 
and was only undeceived, to his very great dis¬ 
appointment, on a closer approach. 

The object of this remarkable social quality in the bird is very obscure. As 
in many instances the nests of the weaver birds are evidently constructed for the 
purpose of guarding them from the attacks of snakes and monkeys, the two 
most terrible foes against which they have to contend, it is not improbable that 
the sociable weaver birds may find in mutual association a safeguard against their 
adversaries, who might not choose to face the united attacks of so many bold 
though diminutive antagonists. The shape and general aspect of the nests varies 
greatly with their age, those of recent construction being comparatively narrow 
in diameter, while the older nests are often spread in umbrella fashion over the 
branches, enveloping them in their substance, and are sometimes only to be 
recognized as a heap of ruins from which the inhabitants have long fled. 

In general the social weaver bird prefers to build its nest on the branches 
of some strong and lofty tree, like the giraffe thorn previously mentioned, which 



ORCHARD ORIOLE. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


359 


also has the advantage of massive and heavy foliage disposed in masses not 
unlike the general shape of the weaver birds' nest. Sometimes, however, and 
especially near the banks of the Orange river, the bird is obliged to put up 
with a more lowly seat, 
and contents itself 
with the arborescent 
aloe. The number of 
eggs in each nest is 
usually from three to 
five, and their color 
is bluish-white, dotted 
towards the larger 
end with small brown 
spots. The food of 
this bird seems to con¬ 
sist mostly of insects, 
as when the nests are 
pulled to pieces wings, 
legs and other hard 
portions of various 
insects are often found 
in the interior of the 
cells. It is said that 
the sociable weaver 
birds have but one 
enemy to fear, in the 
persons of the small 
parrots, who also 
delight in assembling 
together in society, 
and will sometimes 
make forcible entries 
into the weaver birds' 
nest and disperse the 
rightful inhabitants. 

The color of the 
sociable weaver bird 
is brown, taking a 
pale buff tint on the 
under surface of the 
body, and mottled on 
the back with the 
same hue. It is quite 
a small bird, measur¬ 
ing only five inches nest of jtpuba cassicus. 

in length. 

The Satin Bower Bird ( Ptilonorhynchus halosericeus ) is a 
starling family, whose habitat is Australia. In some respects 



member of the 
it is the most 


remarkable of birds, not for the nest it builds, as this yet remains to be dis- 





































THE LIVING WORLD. 


360 

covered, but for the cultivated taste it displays in constructing a bower for 
lodgment, and the decoration of its surroundings. The bird is believed to 
nest upon the ground, but because" of the superstitious fears of the natives, 
who hold it in very great awe, they have not discovered or revealed its nesting 
habits. The bower which this bird constructs is admirably shown in the 
illustration on page 292, but for a description I am indebted to Mr. Gould, 
who writes as follows: 

“ On visiting the Cedar Brushes of the Liverpool range, I discovered 
several of these bowers or playing-places; they are usually placed under the 
shelter of the branches of some overhanging tree in the most retired part of 
the forest; they differ considerably in size, some being larger, while others 
are much smaller. The base consists of an exterior and rather convex plat¬ 
form of sticks, firmly interwoven, on the centre of which the bower itself is 
built. This, like the platform on which it is placed and with which it is 
interwoven, is formed of sticks and twigs, but of a more slender and flexible 
description, the tips of the twigs being so arranged as to curve inward and 
nearly meet at the top; in the interior of the bower, the materials are so 
placed that the forks of the twigs are always presented outward, by which 
arrangement not the slighest obstruction is offered to the passage of the birds. 

“For what purpose these curious bowers are made is not yet, perhaps, 
fully understood; they are certainly not used as a nest, but as a place of 
resort for many individuals of both sexes, who, when there assembled, run 
through and round the bower in a sportive and playful manner, and that so 
frequently that it is seldom entirely deserted. 

“ The interest of this curious bower is much enhanced by the manner in 
which it is decorated, at and near the entrance, with the most gayly colored 
articles that can be collected, such as the blue tail feathers of the Rose Hill 
and Lory Parrots, bleached bones, the shells of snails, etc. Some of the feathers 
are stuck in among the twigs, while others, with the bones and shells, are 
strewed about near the entrance. The propensity of these birds to fly off with 
any attractive object is so well known that the blacks always search the runs 
fqr any missing article. 

“So persevering are these birds in carrying off anything that may strike their 
fancy that they have been known to steal a stone tomahawk, some blue cotton 
rags, and an old tobacco-pipe. Two of these bowers are now in the nest room 
of the British Museum, and at the Zoological Gardens the bower bird may be 
seen hard at work at its surface, fastening the twigs or adorning the entrances, 
and ever and anon running through the edifice with a curious loud full cry 
that always attracts the attention of a passer-by. The satin bower bird bears 
confinement well, and although it will not breed in captivity, it is very indus¬ 
trious in building bowers for recreation.” 

From reports made by visitors to the land where this singular bird is 
found, it would appear that only a few exercise the singular propensity of 
bower-building, since, though these birds are rather plentiful, the discovery 
of their strange structures is an uncommon event. From this fact many 
persons well-informed have concluded that the bird occasionally exhibits a 
theatrical ambition, which it gratifies by constructing these bowers as houses of 
entertainment, to which are invited, at times, such of its neighbors as may be 
agreeable, though host and guests alike turn players. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


361 




It is rather a gregarious bird, assembling in flocks, led by a few adult males 
in their full plumage, and a great number of young males and females. They 
are said to migrate from the Murrumbidgee in the 
summer and to return in the autumn. 

The plumage of the adult male is a very glossy 
satin-like purple, so deep as to appear black in a 
faint light, but the young males and females are 
almost entirely of an olive-green. 

The Spotted Bower Bird ( Chlamydera mcicii- 
lata ) differs from the former species only in the col¬ 
oring of its plumage, its habits being substantially 
the same. 

GALLINACEOUS BIRDS iGallina?). 

Under the classilication technically known as the 
gallince (which is a Latin word meaning hens) are 
grouped all varieties of our domestic poultry, and also 
the scrapers , or those species which are in the habit of* 
scratching the ground in search of food, such as the 
pheasant, grouse, quails, turkeys and many other 

useful and interesting game-birds. hokko hen. 

The Crested Curassow or Hokko Hen {Crux 
alector) is one of the most magnificent species of gallinaceous birds, almost 

rivalling the peacock in 
brilliancy of plumage, 
which is of a deep black, 
with a slight gloss of green 
upon the head, crest, neck, 
back, wings and upper 
part of the tail, and dull 
white beneath and on the 
lower tail-coverts. Its crest 
is from two to three inches 
in length, and occupies the 
whole upper surface of the 
head; it is curled and vel- 
capable of being raised or depressed 
at will, in accordance with the temporary feelings by which the 
bird is actuated. The eyes are surrounded by a naked skin, 
which extends into the cere and there assumes a bright yellow 
color. In size the bird is almost equal to a turkey. This spe¬ 
cies is a native of Mexico, Guiana and Brazil, and. Probably 
extends itself over a large portion of the southern division of the 
American continent. In the woods of Guiana it appears to be so 
extremely common that M. Sonnini regards it as the most certain 
resource of a hungry traveller, whose stock of. provisions is 
exhausted, and who has consequently to trust to his gun for fur¬ 
nishing him with a fresh supply. They congregate together m 
■numerous flocks, and appear to be under little or no uneasiness 
from the intrusion of men into their haunts. Even when a considerable 


362 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



number of them have been shot, the rest remain quietly perched upon the 
trees, apparently unconscious of the havoc that has been committed among 
them. This conduct is by no means the result of stupidity, but proceeds 
rather from the natural tameness and unsuspiciousness of their character. 
Those, however, which frequent the neighborhood of inhabited places are said 
to be much wilder and more mistrustful, being kept constantly on the alert 
to avoid the pursuit of the hunters, who destroy them in great numbers. 
They build their nests on the trees, forming them externally of branches, 
interlaced with the stalks of herbaceous plants, and lining them internally 
with leaves. They generally lay but once a year, during the rainy season; 
the number of their eggs being, according to Sonnini, five or six, and to 
D’Azara, as many as eight. They are nearly as large as those of a turkey, 
but are white and have a thicker shell. Some efforts have been made 
towards domesticating the curassow , chiefly in Holland, and which have had 

some success. 

ThePhea- 
rants ( Phasi - 
anidce) form 
one of the most 
interesting 
groups of the 
feathered race, 
whether w’e 
regard them 
for the brill¬ 
iancy of their 
plumage or 
the excellence 
of their flesh. 

The gold¬ 
en pheasant , 
of China (P. 
pictus ), and 

pheasant of the himaeayas. another species 

of that coun¬ 
try, known as P. venesatus , are reckoned by many to be the most gor¬ 
geously attired birds of the world. Asia is believed to be the nativity of all 
species of the pheasant family, their importation into Europe having been made, 
it is said, by the Argonauts, who sailed with Jason in quest of the golden fleece. 
The most splendid species are still to be found in the Himalaya region, of 
which the horned tragopan is specially conspicuous. It is quite a large bird, 
distinguished for its rich plumage, and for two large wattles that hang from 
under the eyes and which the bird can inflate at will. 

The Argus Pheasant (Argus giganteus\ found principally in Sumatra, is 
a truly royal bird, the name of which commemorates in a degree the Argus 
of mythology, who, it is said, never closed his hundred eyes simultaneously 
until put to sleep by the playing of Mercury on the magic pipe of Pan. As 
the eyes of Argus were said to be distributed all over his body, so are eye-like 
spots on every part of the argus pheasant , though those on the long tail feath- 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


363 





ers are much brighter, of white and black. The wings, however, are yet more 
beautiful, charmingly bedecked with gradations of jetty black, deep brown, and 
with orange, fawn, olive and white, in exquisite combination. The tail has two 
extremely long central feathers, sometimes measuring as 
much as four feet and bewitchingly marked with pris¬ 
matic colors, re-inforced by secondary feathers of equal 
gorgeousness. When flying the long tail trails behind 
with a positively dazzling effect, which is not seen when 
the bird is on the ground, except it be in the courting 
season, when the male disports his plumage by expand¬ 
ing both tail and wing feathers and strutting about 
like the peacock. Its size is equal to that of a guinea- 
fowl. 

The Shining Pheasant {Lophophorus impeyanus ), 
of Thibet, is another gorgeous specimen, with plumage 
reflecting metallic hues of fiery red, green, purple 
and gold, and rivalling the richest clothed humming¬ 
birds of South America. In the summer season they 
ascend to great elevations of the Himalayas, but in 
winter they return in large flocks to the lower alti¬ 
tudes, the two sexes, however, being separated. Great 
numbers at this time are killed for their skins, and /** TT o 

1 - 1 , . 1 r 1 • • ARGUS PHEASANT. 

they are fast disappearing by reason ot the pernicious 
demands of fashion in what we wontingly call civilized lands. 

_ __ The American Pheasant (P. col- 

chiciis) is also a pretty bird, or rather 
the male is, for the female of all the 
several species has a dull plumage, and 
much less expanse and length of tail. 
It is found, but only occasionally now, 
in the woods east of the Mississippi and 
north of the Ohio. Like all of the 
family, it is a ground-loving bird, a splen¬ 
did runner, and so crafty, as well as swift 
of flight, that they are most difficult to 
shoot. Their color also, at times, blends so perfectly with the woods, that only 
a trained eye is quick to perceive them. I once 
stood for nearly an 
hour vainly striv¬ 
ing to catch sight 
of a pheasant that 
I heard “ drum¬ 
ming” on a log, 
which I knew to 
be not fifty yards 
distant. At last 
discouraged, I 

stepped from my hiding place, and at once the bird took flight from the very 
spot where I supposed it to be, and at which I had been steadfastly gazing so 


SAND PHEASANT (P. exustus). 


AMERICAN PHEASANT. 


SHINING PHEASANT. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



The English Partridge (Perdix cinereus) is a bird which forms one of 
the connecting links between pheasants and quails. By the protection given 
it in game-kept preserves, the partridge is plentiful in England, as well as in 
a greater part of Europe. Like the pheasant, the partridge builds a nest upon 
the ground, and lays therein a dozen eggs, and sometimes more, which are 
hatched in about seventeen days. It is a singular fact that the partridge and 
pheasant exchange nests occasionally, so that the eggs found in one nest may 


364 

long. In England the pheasant is protected in preserves, and poaching is 
punished by severe penalties. There the bird is quite numerous, and fur¬ 
nishes splendid sport to those whose wealth enables them to indulge in the 
pleasure. It is a strange fact that the pheasant , when proper opportunity 
offers, will mate as readily with other birds as with members of its own 
species, so that in England hybrids between it and barn-yard fowls are quite 
common. Indeed, cock pheasants have been known many times to beat the 
autocrat of the barn-yard and usurp his place among the hens. 


ENGLISH PARTRIDGE. 




THE LIVING WORLD. 




be mixed, and a mixed brood is thus hatched, to which the foster-parent is no 
less devoted than to its own legitimate offspring. In cases of threatening 
danger to the nest, the female partridge has been known to carry her eggs to 
another spot, though how this is done remains to be explained. 

About the middle or end of February, according to the mildness or 
inclemency of the season, the partridge begins to pair; and, as the male birds 
are very numerous, they fight desperate battles for the object of their love. 
While engaged in combat, they are so deeply absorbed in battle that they may 
be approached quite closely, as they whirl 
round and round, grasping each other by 
the beak, and have even been taken by 
hand. So strong, however, is the warlike 
instinct, that, when released, the, furious 
birds recommence the quarrel. 

In nearly all respects the English 
partridge and the red-legged partridge differ 

from the American bob-white only in size, European quaiu. 

the former being nearly as large as our prairie 

chicken, the coloring and habits, being so similar as to show a close relationship. 

The Quail ( Coturnix communis ) is found very widely distributed over all 
parts of Europe, and a greater part of Africa and Asia. It will be remem¬ 
bered that during the flight of the 
Israelites, and while famishing in 
the Arabian wilderness, a miracu¬ 
lous flight- of quails came and cov¬ 
ered up the camp. The surprising 
numbers of these birds in former 
years would lend probability to 
the story, even were it related by 
profane writers. These birds are 
migratory, and even to this day 
sometimes pass over Arabia in 
countless numbers; they chiefly 
travel by night, no doubt in order 
to escape the birds of prey that 
would create sad havoc among 
them if discovered during the 
daytime; the females precede the 
males several days, but why this is 
so cannot be determined. This 
species, unlike our American quail, 
are polygamous, the male adopting the habits of our barnyard cock, and sur¬ 
rounding himself with about a dozen hens. From these habits the inference is 
unavoidable that the females are very much more numerous than the males. 
So pugnacious are the males that it has long been a custom among people of 
Eastern countries to keep large numbers and train them especially for the 
prize-ring, great snms being staked upon the result of a fight. The breeding 
habits are identical with those of our American quail. 

The Virginia Quail ( Ortyx virginiana ) is also called bob-white from the 


VIRGINIA QUAIU. 



3 66 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


sound of its calls in the laying season, and also parti'idge , which latter title 
is so inappropriate as to belong entirely to another and larger species. It is 
found throughout the United States east of the Rocky Mountains, and in some 
places in the West, especially Arkansas and Southern Missouri, it is quite 
numerous. Like squirrels, quails occasionally migrate, apparently assembling 
at one common rendezvous and departing together, at which time nothing will 
stay their flight except exhaustion. When I was a boy I saw two migrations 
of quails , both in the same direction, coming from Kentucky and crossing the 
Ohio into Illinois. The river, at the place where I lived, was fully one mile 
wide, which was too great a flight for thousands to make without resting, so 
that they fell into the river near the western shore in great numbers, some 
reaching the bank by swimming, while others perished, besides those captured 
by persons in skiffs. But there are now so few compared with their number 
in former years, while the country is so well settled, that it is not probable 
similar migrations will be witnessed hereafter. 

The quail loves cultivated fields where is found an increased food sup¬ 
ply of both grain and insects. It builds upon the ground, within the grass or 
ripening wheat, and lays from a dozen to eighteen eggs. The instant the 
young are hatched they are ready for energetic action and can run with sur¬ 
prising swift¬ 
ness. Indeed, 
the young 
may some¬ 
times be seen 
running about 
with a part of 
the shell still 
sticking to the 
back. In the 

an enemy foieed. process of in¬ 

cubation both 

parents perform a part, so, too, when the numerous broods are hatched out 
do the parents gather the chicks under their wings at night or in bad 
weather, at which time they sit with their tails together in a rather unfamiliar 
attitude. Yet they are very affectionate, as well as cunning. The male 
is courageous in defence of his family, and the mother is very adroit in 
her efforts to prevent the exposure of her brood. She will feign lameness and 
flutter along barely out of reach of a person or foe until she has led him a 
sufficient distance from her chicks which, in the mean time, lie hidden among 
the grass. When she thinks the danger past she takes wing and flies in a 
direction opposite to the place where her brood is concealed, and sometime after 
calls them together. When the young are three weeks old they are able to fly, 
and rise promptly on an alarm being given by the parent, and thereafter the family 
will always be found together, whether upon the wing or running along the 
ground. 

Many attempts have been made to domesticate the quail , but invariably 
with poor results. A great many broods have been hatched out by domestic 
hens, but after a few weeks, or months at most, the young always desert their 
foster-parents and go to the woods to return no more. The male quail is a 








THE LIVING WORLD. 


367 





handsome creature, of a proud bearing, and his notes are loud, cheery and melo¬ 
dious, sounded most frequently at early morn, though in May and June he joy¬ 
fully pipes his “ bob , bob-white ” from some perch not far distant from the nest 
of his mate, at all hours of the day. 

Quail are so highly esteemed for their flesh that immense numbers are 
destroyed every open season, by shooting and 
trapping, the latter 
being the more de¬ 
structive. Informer 
years I have seen 
many quail-drives, 
by which, during a 
wet or foggy day, 
covey after covey 
were easily driven 
into a net having 
wings stretched out 

several yards and blue quail. California quail. 

converging toward 

a centre, where the enclosure was ample to permit the entrance of a hundred 
or more. When the birds entered the net proper the drivers would rush up, 
drop the netting and then easily secure the captives. 

The California Quail (.Laphortyx californicus ) is found only in the South¬ 
west and west 
of the Rocky 
Mou n tains. 
In his habits 
he does not 
differ essen¬ 
tially from 
the species 
just de¬ 
scribed, but 
his plumage 
is very much 
handsomer, 
though his 
flesh is not 
so palatable. 
His notes are 
clear, though 
not so rich as 

the sunset minuet. the Eastern 

species, bear¬ 
ing some resemblance to “ kuck-kkck-kca-a." He is beautifully clothed in 
rich colors: purplish-blue on the neck, black throat, yellow frontlet, two 
white stripes on the sides of the head, and a delicate crest of three bluish-black 
feathers that may be raised or lowered at pleasure. The other body-markings 
are similar to those which distinguish the Eastern species. 






368 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


The Plumed Quail ( Oreortyx pictus ) inhabits the mountain ranges of the 
Pacific coast. It is about the size of the preceding species, but while the body 
plumage is not so bright as either, it is provided with two long, black and 
charming plume-feathers, which may be elevated when the bird is excited. 

The Blue Quail ( Calipepla squamata) is found in Mexico and Arizona, 
and is a specially handsome bird, the body feathers being of a bright sky-blue, 
the head mottled with rufous, white and black, and crested with a webbed 
feather that curves gracefully forward. The secondary feathers of the wings 
are brown, flecked with white. 

Next to the pheasant and quail in popular esteem as a game or table 
bird, is the grouse, or prairie chicken, of which there are several species both 
in this and other countries of a north temperate and arctic climate. 

The Pinnated Grouse ( Tetrao cupido ) is perhaps the most favorably known 
of the wild-chicken species, though not so numerous. They are rarely found 
now east of the Mississippi; nor do any considerable number now exist, so far 

as I have been able to learn, outside 
of Dakota, where, in 1884, I found them 
so plentiful along the Missouri river, 
some forty miles below Bismarck, that 
it was an easy matter to “ bag ” more 
than one hundred in a day’s. shooting. 
These birds are partial to stunted brush¬ 
wood, and are particularly fond of a 
small red and very sour berry, called bull- 
berry, that grows on a low tree, about the 
size of the hawthorn. When “ put up ” 
they nearly always light in a tree, often 
rising to the topmost branches, from 
which they are not easily frightened, 
but will crane their necks and utter 
their call of put-put-put-put, while the 
sportsman discharges his gun repeatedly 
and until they are struck. Like others 
of the species the pinnated grouse is a 
very chivalrous and vain bird during 
the mating season. They congregate of an evening in open places and 
sometimes a covey of several dozen may be seen going through the graceful 
figures of the minuet, bowing their heads together, turning in a kind of jerky 
manner, spreading their tails and chassezing in a proud and measured manner. 
At this time the bird is remarkable for the naked sacculated appendages which 
hang on either side of the neck, and which can be inflated until they are almost 
the size and color of an orange. The cocks are also noted for their fighting 
proclivities, and during the breeding season the most desperate combats take 
place lasting sometimes for hours, but rarely ever resulting in any great 
damage to the contestants. 

The pinnated grouse , like all the species, builds its nest upon the ground, 
being a simple excavation lined with grass, in which generally about fifteen 
eggs of a brownish-white are deposited. The plumage of the bird is a mottle 
of white and chestnut-brown, the latter color predominating. The male is pro- 



THE combat. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


369 


vided with eighteen feathers on either side of the neck, of black and brown, 
which are distensible, but which generally lie close except during the time of 
courtship. He has also a small crest and a semi-circular comb of orange-col¬ 
ored skin over each eye. The sacculated appendages on the neck are used to 
produce a drumming noise, or are certainly in some way instrumental in the 
production of the booming sound which they utter during the strutting season. 
Naturalists, however, are not united in their opinions respecting the means 
employed to produce the sound. It has been observed that the pinnated grouse 
inflates the sacs on his neck, and at the instant of their collapse, by a violent 
expulsion of the air within, a booming noise is heard. But the same sound, 
though not so loud, is produced by the turkey-gobbler, cock-pheasant, and by 
other species of prairie-grouse, though none of these are provided with the air 
sacs. The ques- 
tion, therefore, 
of just how the 
noise is pro¬ 
duced remains 
unsettled. 

The Hazel 
Hen (Te tras 
bo nasi a} is a 
large species of 
grouse, resem¬ 
bling the sage 
hen in habits, 
but found only 
in Europe. The 
body markings 
are considerably 
darker than 
those of our 
prairie chickens, 
and it is some¬ 
what larger. 

The head is dis¬ 
tinguished for 

having a bold crest of feathers, which are balanced, so to speak, by a thick 
growth of feathers under the throat giving to it a bearded appearance. From 
base of the bill runs a crescent of white over to the neck and to the breast, 
while another strip of white crosses on a line with the eyes, which impart a 
very pleasing appearance to the bird. While found chiefly upon open ground 
it not infrequently resorts to the brush to prey upon insects that are to be 
found about rotting wood. 

The Black Grouse (Tetras tetrix) is also a north Europe species, dis¬ 
tinguished, as the name implies, for its black feathers which are nowhere re¬ 
lieved except on the inner edges of the wing, which are white. The tail, how¬ 
ever, is its glory, being composed of large feathers which curve gracefully from 
the ’centre outwardly. The head is also decorated with a small crest of 
feathers. 

24 



PRAIRIB HEN AND HER BROOD. 



37° 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


The Ruffled Grouse ( Tetras umbellus) is more widely distributed than 
the preceding species, being found in all the Western States, though no longer 
very plentiful. When I first went to Kansas, in 1870, the prairies everywhere 
seemed to be fairly animate with them, and early in the mornings of spring 
so great was the noise created by the drumming of thousands of these birds 
that little else could be heard. In the winter, though, their numbers seemed 
to be even greater, for sometimes a heavy snow would drive them in incredible 
numbers to the shelter of farm houses, and even into dwellings, severe hunger 
making them so bold. As the West became settled up, the grouse , like the 
Indians, were driven westward in constantly diminishing numbers, until now 
coveys are only occasionally to be seen. The result of this barbarous destruc¬ 
tion of a most useful bird, has been a number of grasshopper invasions that 
did inestimable damage by the total destruction of growing crops. Had these 
birds been protected, they would have in turn protected the. farmer against 

the grasshop¬ 
per, since these 
insect pests 
constitute the 
principal food 
of grouse. 

The ruf¬ 
fled grouse 
bears a close 
resemblance to 
the preceding 
species, differ¬ 
ing only in 
having more 
brown in its 
plumage, and 
a ruffle of 
feathers on the 
neck, instead 
of long, wing¬ 
like feathers. 

The Red 
Grouse (Per- 

dix rufa) is confined to the British Isles, where, on account of its feathered 
feet, it is also called the hare-foot. The color of this species is variable, but 
the name red hen has been given it because in the winter the male is well 
clad in a plumage of bright chestnut-brown. 

The Capercaillie, or Wood Grouse ( Tetras urogalius) , is the largest of the 
grouse species, and. is found only in Norway, Sweden, and the extreme northern 
parts of Europe. Unlike its congeners, this bird spends a greater part of its time 
among the trees. It also goes under a variety of names such as cock of the woods , 
mountain cock , capercailzie , etc. Though living among the trees, the capercaillie 
builds its nest upon the ground, and lays from eight to ten eggs. The color of 
the male is a chestnut, flecked with irregular black streaks, and the breast a 
black with a gloss of green. It nearly equals the wild turkey in size. 










THE LIVING, WORLD. 


37 1 




The Cock of the Plains (Tetras urophasianus ) is now a very rare bird, 
found occasionally in southern California. He differs from other species in 
having a very 
long tail, which 
in the strutting 
season he spreads 
in magnificent 
display, droops 
his wings like 
the turkey, erects 
the silken plumes 
of his neck and 
puffs out his crop 
after the fashion 
of the pouter 
pigeon. The 
flesh is not es¬ 
teemed. 

The Black 
Grouse (Tetrao 
tetrix) is a habi- opening of the chicken season. 

tant of southern 

Europe, but it is scarce and extremely wary. This bird differs from other species 
in several particulars. It crows in a stridulous voice, which has been likened 

to the sound of whetting 
a scythe. The male is also 
polygamous, and rather in¬ 
different in his affections 
to both females and his 
young. In the winter the 
sexes separate, and in the 
spring, when the courting 
season opens, the males 
battle until the authority 
of the strongest is estab¬ 
lished. The general color 
of the male is a glossy 
black, with a hue of blue. 
The tail is bifurcated, caused 
by the greater length of the 
outer feathers, which curve 
outward at the tips. 

The Ptarmigan (Lag-o¬ 
pus albas ) differs from 
others of the species, except 
the red grouse, in having 
the legs and toes heavily 
feathered. It is also distinguished for the change of plumage which takes place 
to accommodate the bird to the rigorous climate where it makes its home. 


PRAIRIE HEN ON HER NEST. 


In 











37 2 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


the summer season the color is a rusty brown, but towards fall the feathers 
become lighter, fading gradually from brown to gray, and then to a pure white 
as the severe weather approaches. It dwells among the snow-clad hills, being 
found as far north as Greenland, and rarely more southerly than British 
America. In its habits the ptarmigan does not differ from the pinnated grouse, 
which it equals in size. 




The Great Bustard 

(Otis tarda ) was formerly 
quite plentiful in both 
Great Britain and Europe, 
but so few are now to be 
seen that it will soon be 
placed in the list of ex¬ 
tinct birds. It is about 
equal to the turkey in 
size, but has many char¬ 
acteristics of the ostrich. 
Although the wings are 
fairly well developed, it 
rarely exercises them ex¬ 
cept as aids to its rapid 
progress over ground, for it 
is one of the swiftest run¬ 
ners, able to contest with fleetest horse or dog. Its nest is only a shallow basin 
scooped out of the ground usually in grain fields, in which two or three eggs 
are laid of an olive-brown, splashed with rufous and having a green tinge. 

The Little Bustard (Otis tetrax ) is still found in considerable numbers all 
.over Europe, being particularly plentiful about the Caspian shores, where it 
ranges in large flocks. It is about the size of a quail and is quite a handsome 
bird, the flesh of which is held in 
high esteem. 

The Wild Turkey (Meleagris 
gallopavo ) is beyond compare the 
most majestic of all game birds, 
for which reason he is cruelly 
persecuted, so that the number is 
rapidly diminishing, though in 
Missouri and Arkansas it is by no 
means scarce as yet. It is spread 
over the whole of America except 
the extreme north and south, its 
favorite habitat being Indiana, Illi¬ 
nois, Missouri, Arkansas, Indian 
Territory and Texas. It begins 
to mate in February, and then the male puts on his vaunting airs of arro¬ 
gant pride, gobbling in distracting voice, trailing his wings with a thudt that 
seems to penetrate both earth and air. 

The female makes her nest in some secluded place, and is very guarded in 
her approaches, seldom travelling the same path twice in succession, and if 


black grous£ (Tetrao tetrix). 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


3 73 


discovered, using various wiles by which to draw the intruder from the spot. 
As soon as the young are hatched she takes them under her charge, and the 
whole family go wandering about to great distances, at first returning to the 
nest at night, but afterwards crouching in any suitable spot. Marshy places 
are avoided by 
the turkey , as wet 
is fatal to the 
young birds until 
they have at- 
tained their 
second suit of 
clothes, and wear 
feathers instead of 
down. As soon as 
they are about a 
fortnight old they 
are able to get 
up into trees, 
and roost in the 
branches, safe 
from most of the 
numerous ene¬ 
mies which beset 
their path through 
life. 

The great 

horned owl is, ptarmigan. 

however, still able 

and willing to snatch them from the branches, and would succeed oftener in 
its attempts, were it not baffled by the instinctive movements of the turkey. 
Even the slight rustling of the owl’s wings sets the watchful turkeys on the 
alert, and with anxious eyes they note his movements as he sails dark and 
lethal over them in the moonbeams, his large lambent eyeballs glowing with 

opalescent light—a feathered Azrael im¬ 
pending over them, and with fearful 
deliberation selecting his victim. Sud¬ 
denly the swoop is made, but the intended 
victim is ready for the assault; as it dips 
down its head, flattens its tail over its 
back, and the owl, striking upon this im¬ 
provised shield, finds no hold for his claws 
and slides off his prey like water from a 
duck’s back. The whole flock, drop from 
the boughs, and are safely hidden among 
the dark underwood before their enemy has recovered himself and renewed 
the attack. 

The lynx is a terrible foe to the turkeys , bounding suddenly among them, 
and as they hastily rise into the air to seek the shelter of the branches, the 
lynx leaps upwards and strikes them down with his ready paw, just as a cat 



HEATHER SNOW HEN, OR WHITE PTARMIGAN. 









THE LIVING WORLD. 




knocks down sparrows on the wing. Various other animals and birds perse¬ 
cute the inoffensive turkey 
throughout its existence, 
but its worst enemy is the 
featherless biped. Snares 
of wonderful construction, 
traps, and “ pens,” are con¬ 
stantly employed for the 
capture of this valuable 
bird ; the “ pen ” being so 
simple and withal so in¬ 
genious that it merits a 
short description. It is 
made of -logs or fence-rails, 
laid to a height of about 
four feet in a square and 
cover'ed, under which a 
trench is dug from the 
centre, leading out some 
ten or twelve feet from 
the pen. In this trench 
corn is scattered to entice 
the birds. When the 
turkeys discover the grain 
they proceed quickly to 
devour it, keeping their 
heads to the ground and 

following up the trench until they pass into the pen. When all the grain 
is eaten the birds raise their heads and try to get through the interstices 
between the rails, but never once attempt to 
escape by the avenue through which they 
entered, and are thus made captives. Quails 
are often taken in the same manner. 

The Necklace Hen (.Pternistes vulgaris) 
is an inhabitant of Africa, where it is found 
in certain parts in great abundance. It is 
classed with the francolins , or between the 
pheasants and grouse. The males and old 
females are armed with rather formidable 
spurs, which they vigorously use. When 
alarmed they usually rise to the branch of a 
tree and utter notes somewhat resembling an 
hysterical laugh. 

WADING BIRDS. 

The number of species that find their sub¬ 
sistence along the shores of streams, ponds, 

marshes, or the sea, is very great, and though little bustard. 

none of them are endowed with the gift of 

song, they possess other attributes and curious provisions for adaptation which 


GREAT BUSTARD. 




THE LIVING WORLD. * 


375 






render them no less interesting than the varieties described in the foregoing 
pages. Most prominent among the wading 
birds is 

The Flamingo (Phoenicopterns roseus) 
of the America semi-tropical regions, which 
is more beautiful then its congeners found 

in Africa and 
South America. 

It has been 
classed with the 
anseres , or the 
goose tribe, but 
by arbitrary 
assignment 
rather than dis¬ 
coverable anal¬ 
ogy. The 

flamingo is very wild turkey. 

abundant about 

the Florida coast, where it is perhaps the most 
interesting of the many bright plumaged or curious 
birds of that region. Being very tall, (nearly 
hazel hen ( Tetrao bonasia). seven feet) with a long neck and longer legs, its 

movements are strange, though by no means awk¬ 
ward. When feeding it uses its upper mandible as a scoop, turning the head 
so as to receive the food within the basin of the upper bill. The tongue 
is thick and covered with stiff papillae which point backward so that what¬ 
ever enters the mouth is not likely to escape. It is a gregarious bird, 
always feeding in large flocks, over which two or more sentries are placed that 
keep a vigilant watch for the appearance of any enemy. Though its legs are 
seemingly abnormally long, they do not prevent the bird from sitting down m 
a comfortable position, but notwithstanding this ability the flamingo constructs 
a nest of mud and grass in the shape of a truncated pyramid about three feet 

high, the top of which 
is hollowed out. In 
this singular nest the 
bird lays from two to 
four eggs, upon which 
the female sits with 
her legs hanging awk¬ 
wardly on either side. 

The color of this bird 
is a beautiful scarlet 
or white, tinted with 

rose, sometimes almost mirror hen 

necklace HEN. approaching a light red. ( Polypledron chinquis). 

Closely allied to the , 

flamingo is the crane, of which there are several varieties and widely distributed, 
and which are described in the following pages. 



376 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



The Bearded Crane (.Ardia cinerea ) or Heron is rarely met with in this 
country, though its congeners are quite numerous, and the habits of all are 
nearly identical. This particular species is found in Europe occasionally, but 
is most numerous in the swamp regions of Africa, though formerly it abounded 
in England and nearly all the European countries. It is about three feet in 
height, of a slaty-grayish color, the throat and neck white. It has a long 
graceful plume of dark blue feathers on the crown, and a beard of white feathers 

growing from the 
j unction of the 
neck and breast, 
from whence the 
name bearded crane 
is derived. Like 
all others of the 
species it is a 
wader, having very 
long legs and neck, 
and extremely light 
body. It feeds on 
fish largely, but 
will also greedily 
devour young birds, 
rats, mice and other 
small creatures. 
Though not in any 
sense a swimmer, 
yet under certain 
circnmstances it 
has been known to 
take to deep water 
to procure its prey, 
as the following 
incident reported by 
Dr. Neill will 
show: “A large 

willow tree had 
fallen down into 
the pond, and at 
the extremity, 
which is partly 

NEST of THE FLAMINGO (. Phcenicopterus ruber). S1111 k i 11 the 

sludge and con¬ 
tinues to vegetate, water hens breed. The old cock heron swims out to the 
nest and takes the young if he can. He has to swim ten or twelve feet, where 
the water is between two and three feet deep. His motion through the water 
is slow, but his carriage stately. I have seen him fell a rat at one blow on 
the back of the head, when the rat was munching at his dish of fish.” But 
usually the heron procures his food by standing in shallow places and watching, 
with wonderful patience, for the appearance of minnows, or larger fish. He is 






















THE LIVING WORLD. 


377 


a very gourmand, with insatiable Hunger, so that the “ appetite of a heron ” has 
grown into an aphorism to express gluttony. He builds almost invariably in 




BEARDED CRANE. 


I. GREAT BITTERN. 2 . WHITE CRANE. 3 . CURLEW. 


the tops of high trees, dead 
branches being preferred, the 
nest being constructed of 
sticks, with no attempt at 
neatness, but the interior is 
comfortably lined with wool or 
other soft substance. The number of eggs is four or five, of a pale green color. 

The White Crane, or Egret (.Ardea egretta ), is an American species found 
in considerable numbers during summer time 
along the shores of sandbars busily engaged 
fishing, but like the heron, it will also eat the 
smaller mammalia. It breeds principally in cedar 
swamps, on the dead tops of trees, laying generally 
four eggs. It is an extremely wary bird, instinct 
probably teaching it that the worst enemy of all 
creatures—man—covets its beautiful white plu¬ 
mage, and especially the long, delicate train that 
at certain seasons of the year covers the tail. 

The height of this pretty bird is between three 
and four feet. 

The Blue, or Sandhill Crane (Grus canaden¬ 
sis) , is the largest of the species found in America. 

Occasional specimens are met with on sandbars 
of the Ohio river, but their homes seem to be west 
of the Mississippi, being distributed over the whole blue crane ( Grus tinerea). 
territory between 15 0 longitude and the Pacific, 

extending north to Alaska. It occasionally makes its nest in the sand, and 
at other times in the top of tall ferns, in open ground. The eggs are always 



378 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




two in number, of a drab color, and on the greater end are large, irregular 
blotches of chocolate-brown. The shell is punctulate, with numerous elevations 
resembling warts distributed over the surface. 

The blue crane , while certainly not a handsome bird, is by no means ungrace¬ 
ful, especially when feeding. It is extremely wary and rises at the least sus¬ 
picion, usually giving a hoarse call, as a warning to its mates. Though easily 
frightened they may be domesticated if taken when young and properly cared 
for. There is an island in Lake Minnetonka, Minnesota, that has for years been 
a favorite resort for blue cranes as well as for other species. The island is 
covered with a heavy growth of timber, much of which is destitute of foliage,, 
and in these trees thousands of cranes build their nests every year. It is an 

interesting sight to 



BEARDED CRANES. 


see them feeding 
their young, which 
I have several times 
witnessed while 
spending a time at 
that summer resort. 
The cranes come 
from every direction, 
bearing in their 
strong beaks fishes 
of various kinds and 
sizes, including 
perch, bass, sun- 
fish, croppie and 
pickerel, some of 
which latter are 
occasionally so large 
as to be quite be¬ 
yond the ability of 
even the largest 
cranes to swallow. 
In such cases, after 
many vain efforts on 
the part of the young 
to gorge the prey, 


the fish is thrown out of the nest, so that a walk over the grounds reveals 
thousands of large fish, some alive and others in all stages of decomposition, 
lying where they have fallen from the nests. 

The flight of the crane is swift and graceful, and resembles somewhat that 
of an arrow. The neck is stretched straight out in front, while the legs trail 
in a direct line with the neck and body behind. At the time of migrating 
they assemble in immense flocks, choose their leader, and at the word of com¬ 
mand leave their perches, and start off on an incline until a great height is 
reached, when they move in solemn rank, each bird in its assigned place, one 
behind the other, and the commandant in the lead. The blue crane is about six 
feet in height, with a plumage of unchangeable dun color. It is a vicious 
bird when unable to retreat, and uses its beak with the effect of a stiletto. 












THE LIVING WORLD. 


379 



The Demoiselle Crane (Scops virgo ) is a very handsome African species, 
hardly four feet in height, notable for the eccentric gambols it occasionally 
indulges in, in which it dances about on the tips of its toes, flaps its wings, 
and bows its head' in a most humorous manner. 

The Crowned Crane (Balearica pavonina) is also a native of northwestern 
Africa, and like 
the previous 
species occa¬ 
sionally indul¬ 
ges in fantastic 
gambols. It 
differs from the 
demoiselle in 
having a very 
handsome crest 
of filamentous 
feathers of a 
golden hue, 
fringed with 
black barbules. 

It has an ex¬ 
tremely harsh 
voice, which it 
freque n tly 
uses, and is 
sometimes call¬ 
ed the trumpet 
crane. 

The name 
trumpeter i s 
very properly 
bestowed be¬ 
cause the bird 
gives voice to a 
call very much 
resembling 
trumpet notes, 
which it repeats 
very often be¬ 
tween sunset 
and dark. Su¬ 
perstitious peo- CRANE FEEDING ITS YOUNG. 

tached the same importance to the cry of the crane as they have to the howling 
of a dog, and with equal reason, since there is no reason in either. The crane s 
dancing habits, grotesque almost beyond description, are also made the basis 
for equally silly prophesy of evil, making of an innocent hilarity which the 
bird thus expresses, a portent of calamity to persons and even to communi¬ 


ties. 



380 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


The Night Heron ( Nyctiardea gardeni ) abounds in nearly all the marshy 
districts of America and the British provinces. It breeds about the marshy coasts, 
building its nests in the densest coverts of swamp lands of sticks that are laid 
so loosely as to require frequent repairs to retain the young. They are 
gregarious in building, sometimes as many as half a dozen nests being located 
in the same tree. The eggs vary in number from three to seven, are extremely 
thin-shelled considering the size, and are of a pale sea-green color. The young do 
not leave the tree in which they are hatched for some weeks, but spend little time 
in the nest after the first week, being usually found clumsily climbing about the 
branches, and hanging by bill and claws. During the breeding season the 
male gives utterance to a deep, booming noise, that may be heard for a great 
distance. Like all the genera, the heron is a pugnacious bird, and capable of 
doing very serious injury with its stiletto-like bill. 

The Blue Heron (. Ardea ccerulea) , also vulgarly called shite-poke , is a 
frequenter of the creeks, marshes and rivers of the Northern States, though it 
is most numerous about the bayous and lagoons of the South. Its habits are 

much like the preceding species, except 
that it does not defend itself so vigor¬ 
ously against foes. It is about two feet 
in height, and of a dull bluish color. 

The Brown Heron ( Ardea i'ufa), 
or Marsh Hen, is a little larger than 
the blue heron, and has a dull brown 
plumage, like the back feathers of a 
thrush. It is rarely met with except 
about marshy places, where it feeds off 
fish, lizards, insects and Crustacea. It 
is a bold bird when wounded, as I can 
testify by sad experience, using its 
sharp, strong bill with terrific effect upon 
man, dog, or any creature that comes 
within its reach. 

The Great Bittern (Botaurus stellaris) is the largest American species, found 
everywhere within the United States, and as far north as Hudson’s Bay. Its 
habits are like those of the preceding species, except that its nest is built in 
sedgy places, in which four eggs are laid, of a pale green. It feeds almost 
exclusively by night, and when disturbed, rises with a deep, sonorous kawk , 
that is startling to those who hear it for the first time. The plumage is a 
rusty brown, lighter under the abdomen, and a streak of black underlaid with 
white, running back from the base of bill to the middle of the neck. The 
bird stands about three feet high. 

The Golden-breasted Trumpeter (. Psophia crepitans) is an extremely hand¬ 
some bird, with short, velvety feathers on head and neck, and a golden-green 
lustre on the breast. The body is small, compared with the extremely long 
neck and legs, but this disproportion serves it extremely well for it is a 
remarkably swift runner, unlike others of the crane family. The bird is gre¬ 
garious, inhabiting the heavy forests along the Amazon in large flocks. It is 
easily domesticated, and is frequently seen among the domestic poultry of the 
Indians, where it rules, however, with an iron hand. Its height is four feet. 



EGRET. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


38i 



The name trumpeter has been given because of the loud and very curious 
ventriloquous sound the bird produces with the mouth closed. It nests upon 
the ground. 

The Sun Bittern (.Eurypyga helias), also called Striped Sun-ray, is also a 
South American bird that possesses the characteristics of both heron and rail, 
but is easily distinguishable from both. It is beautifully variegated with 
white, brown and black bands and mottlings. It is hardly so large as the 
brown bittern, has a long, square tail, and a neck of some length, but which 
is carried drawn back so 
as to be invisible, except 
when the bird is excited. 

The feathers lie close dur¬ 
ing the life of the bird, 
but immediately after 
death they turn up at 
the ends and appear to 
be reversed. Though shy 
in its native haunts, the 
sun bittern is easily tamed, 
and, like the trumpeter 
described, it is often found 
among the poultry of 
South American Indians. 

It inhabits the banks of 
great rivers, and builds 
its nest at low elevations, 
of sticks lined with slime 
and deftly beaten mud. 

It lays the eggs twice 
each year, and hatches the 
young in four weeks. The 
length is thirty inches. 

The Jacana {Parra 
jacana ) is a very strange 
bird, found widely dis¬ 
tributed in Africa, Asia 
and Australia. It is dis¬ 
tinguished for its extra¬ 
ordinary toes, which are 
almost wire-like in thin¬ 
ness, yet of the most ex- BITTERN ( Botaurus stellaris). 

traordinary length. But 

we perceive in these a singularly wise provision, showing again the marvel¬ 
lous adaptation of structure to habits. This bird finds its subsistence among 
the water-lilies, or the floating leaves of other water-plants, upon which, by 
means of its very long and slender toes, it is able to walk, while picking off 
the snails and other insects which inhabit water-plants. In South America, 
cranes may be also seen very often, standing upon the gigantic leaves of the 
victoria regina, which can support the weight of a body even larger than that 





382 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


of the greatest crane. The jacana is black, with a slightly greenish gloss, run¬ 
ning into a rusty red on the back and wing coverts. The wings are furnished 
at the bend with long, sharp claws, like the bat. At the base of the beak is 
a leathery appendage, rising to the forehead, and depending to the throat. The 
claw of the hind toe is of extraordinary length, even exceeding that of the toe 

itself. 

The Chinese Jacana, or Water Pheas¬ 
ant (Hydrophasianus sinensis ), is an ex¬ 
tremely beautiful bird, with very long, 
arched tail, like that of the golden pheas¬ 
ant, which it also resembles in other re¬ 
spects. Like that of the previous species, 
however, it is a good swimmer, and very 
graceful in all its motions. Both species 
make their nests of weeds and grasses, 
upon, a support made by weaving together 
the stems of aquatic plants. 

The Horned Screamer (Palameda 
cornuta ) is found in Central America, in¬ 
habiting the morasses of that hot country. 
Like the jacana, the shoulders of the wings 
are provided with a bold, sharp spur, which 
the bird uses with great effect against the snakes which it is often compelled 
to fight in defence of its young. It is a large bird, almost equal to the 
turkey, so that a stroke of its wing, armed as it is, may be considered as being 
more effective than that of the swan. Upon its head is a slender, horn-like 
growth about four inches long, the use of which has not been determined. 

The Stork (Ciconia alba ) is one of the best 
known and most highly respected birds, found 
in civilized countries. It is a member of the 
crane family, distinguished from others of the 
species, principally, by having eyes sur¬ 
rounded by a naked skin, and partially webbed 
toes. Its food is garbage, worms, insects, 
fishes and reptiles of several kinds. The 
most celebrated of the species is the White 
Stork, which generally passes its winters in 
the north of Africa, and particularly in Egypt, 
migrating in the summer to more northern 
countries of Europe. As the name indicates, 
the plumage of this species is clear white, with 
feathers covering the shoulders, and wing 
coverts a glossy black. When the wings are spread, the point of the quill 
feathers separate, leaving a space between that would seem to interfere with 
flight, yet few birds are stronger of wing. 

These birds have in all ages been regarded with peculiar favor, amounting 
in some countries almost to veneration, partly on account of the services which 
they perform in the destruction of noxious animals, and in removing impurities 
from the surface of the earth, and partly on account of the mildness of their 



SUN BITTERN. 



TRUMPET BIRD. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


383 

temper, the harmlessness of their habits, and the moral virtues with which 
imagination has delighted to invest them. Among the ancient Egyptians the 
stork was regarded with a reverence 
inferior only to that which, for simi¬ 
lar causes, was paid to the sacred 
ibis, considered, and with some show 
of reason, as one of the tutelary di¬ 
vinities of the land. The same feeling 
is still prevalent in many parts of 
Africa and the East; and even in Switz¬ 
erland and in Holland something like 
superstition seems to mingle in the 
minds of the common people with the 
hospitable kindness which a strong 
conviction of its utility disposes them 
to evince towards this favorite bird. 

In the latter country more particu¬ 
larly, the protection which is accorded 
to it is no more than it fairly deserves 
as the unconscious instrument by 
which the dikes and marshes are re¬ 
lieved from a large portion of the 
enormous quantity of reptiles engend¬ 
ered by the humidity and fertility of 
the soil. 

On the other hand, the white stork 

appears 
to be 
influ¬ 
enced 

by the same friendly feelings towards man. Un¬ 
dismayed by his presence, it builds its nest upon 
the house-top, or on the summits of the loftiest 
trees in the immediate neighborhood of the most 
frequented places. It stalks perfectly at its ease 
along the busy streets of the most crowded town, 
and seeks its food on the banks of rivers, or in 
fens in close vicinity to his abode. In numerous 
parts of Holland, its nest, built on the chimney- 
top, remains undisturbed for many succeeding 
years, and the owners constantly return with un¬ 
erring sagacity to the well-known spot. The joy 
which they manifest on again taking possession 
of their deserted dwelling, and the attachment 
horned screamer. which they testify towards their benevolent hosts, 

are familiar in the mouths of every one. Their affection for their young is one 
of the most remarkable traits in their character. It is almost superfluous to 
repeat the history of the female which, at the conflagration of Delft, after repeated 
and unsuccessful attempts to carry off her young, chose rather to perish with 



















3§4 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




them in the general ruin than to leave them to their fate; and there are many- 
other and well authenticated proofs of a similar disposition. They generally lay 

from two to four eggs of 
a dingy yellowish white, 
rather longer than those of 
the goose, but not so thick. 
The incubation lasts for a 
month, the male sharing 
in the task during the ab¬ 
sence of the female in search 
of food. When the young 
birds are hatched, they are 
carefully fed by their par¬ 
ents, who watch over them 
with the closest anxiety. 
As soon ^.s they become 
capable of flying, the parents 
exercise them in it by de¬ 
grees, carrying them at 
first upon their own wings, 
and then conducting them 
in short circular flights 
cranes on the victoria regia. around their nest. When in 

search of food the stork is 
commonly seen in its usual attitude of repose, standing upon one leg with its 
long neck bent backwards, its head resting 
on its shoulder and its eyes steadily fixed. 

Its motions are slow and measured, the 
length of its steps corresponding with that 
of its legs. In flight its head and neck are 
directed straight forward and its legs 
extended backward, an awkward and ap¬ 
parently constrained position, but that 
which is best calculated for enabling it to 
cleave the air with rapidity. 

In Bagdad, and some other of the 
more remote cities of Asiatic Turkey, 
the nests of storks present a very re¬ 
markable appearance. The minors , or 
towers of the mosques, at Constantinople 
and most other parts of Turkey, are tall, 
round pillars surmounted by a very 
pointed cone; but at Bagdad the absence 
of this cone enables these birds to build 
their nests upon the summit; and as the 

diameter of the nest generally cor- german stork (Cico). 

responds with that of the minar, it ap¬ 
pears as a part of it and a regular termination to it. This curious effect 
is not a little increased by the appearance of the bird itself in the nest, which 






THE LIVING WORLD. 


335 

thus, as part of the body and its long neck are seen above the edge, appears 
the crowning object of the pillar. The Turks hold the bird in more than even 
the usual esteem, which may be partly attributed to its gesticulations, which they 
suppose to resemble some of their own attitudes of devotion. Their name for 
the stork is Hadji lug-lug: the former word, which is the honorary title of a 
pilgrim, it owes to its annual migrations, and its apparent attachment to their 
sacred edifices. The latter portion of the denomination, “ lug-lug ,” is an attempt 
to imitate the noise which the bird makes. The regard of the Turks is so far 
understood and returned by the intelligent stork , that in cities of mixed popu¬ 
lation, it rarely or never builds its nest on any other than a Turkish house. 



STORKS ASSEMBLING PREPARATORY TO MIGRATING. 


The Rev. J. Hartley, in his “ Researches in Greece and the Levant,” remarks: 
“ The Greeks have carried their antipathy to the Turks to such a pitch that 
they have destroyed all the storks in the country. On inquiring the reason, I 
was informed ‘ The stork is a Turkish bird ; it never used to build its nest on 
the house of a Greek, but always on that of a Turk! ’ The tenderness which 
the Turks display towards the feathered tribe is indeed a pleasing trait in their 
character.” 

Whale-head Stork (.Balczniceps rex) is the name given to a species found 
nowhere, I believe, outside of a small district in Northeast Africa. It does not 
migrate but spends all its time, in all seasons, about the morasses of Egypt, 
where it is sometimes seen in pairs and again in flocks of a hundred or more. The 

25 







3 86 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




most notable feature about this bird is its very curious and very huge bill, the 
upper mandible being enormously expanded and hanging over the lower. The 
point of the upper mandible is a long, hook-like termination, which the bird 

uses to tear and rip up its prey. 


Its food is fish, water-snakes and car¬ 
rion. It nests upon the ground, lay¬ 
ing two eggs in a shallow basin of 
mud, which is not lined. The height 
is about three feet, and the color 
is a dark slaty gray, with a narrow 


band of white on the edge of each 
feather. 

The Boat-bill Stork (Cancroma 
cochlearia) is another bird distin¬ 
guished for its singularly large bill, 
fashioned somewhat in the shape of 
a canoe, or as the two bills are 
an almost identical shape, they 


of 

re- 

It 

all 


semble two canoes laid together, 
is a South American bird with 
the habits peculiar to the heron 
family, except that it not only wades 
in the water and watches for its prey, 
but sometimes sits upon a perch 
and angles after the manner of the 
kingfisher. The male presents an 
imposing ap- 


STORK’S NEST ON EGYPTIAN MONUMENT. 


pearance, for 
though his 

plumage is by no means bright, he bears a long flowing 
plume of jet black feathers and a. beard of grayish-white. 

The neck is rather short, and the body about the size of 
a mallard duck. 

The Spoon-bill (.Platalea leucorodia ) is perhaps more 
grotesque in appearance than either of the preceding 
species, if we choose to judge it by the wonderful bill it 
supports. It is found in many parts of Europe, Asia 
and Africa, South America, and the coast of Florida, 
always inhabiting marshy regions like its congeners. The 
beak is nearly one foot long, flat, and is spatulate at the 
end and shaped like the bowl of a spoon. Indeed, the 
bill is often taken from the bird when dead, scraped very 
thin, well polished, sometimes set in silver, and used as 
a spoon. It builds its nest sometimes in trees, and at 
other times on the banks of streams in the thick herbage, 
which it raises above the wet by a plaster of mud. The 
color is a pure white, with rose tint about the neck, and a plume of white 
feathers pendant from the crown. The height of this bird is nearly three feet. 

The Adjutant (.Leptoptilus crumenifer ), of India, is a curious member of the 


WHALE-HEADED STORK 
{Balamiceps rex .) 







THE LIVING WORLD. 



387 

stork family for its. several singular features, as will appear. The bill is very 
large, but uniform in shape, terminating in a very sharp point; it is used as a 


weapon (and a powerful one it is) as well as for taking its food. In India the 
bird is so highly regarded for its services as a scaven¬ 
ger that it frequents the streets of towns and cities 
with all the abandon that distinguishes the English 
sparrow. So powerful is the bill and so large the 
oesophagus, that the adjutant can easily swallow, as 
it frequently does, a full-grown cat or a fowl. The 
carcase of larger animals is easily torn in pieces and 
devoured with remarkable expedition. It also kills and 
eats large snakes and other reptiles, in which capacity 
it performs a very useful service to man. 

This creature is so nearly domesticated, by reason 
of the protection given it, that upon small invitation 
it will adapt itself to civilization by readily becoming 
a house-bird, but it never ceases to be an incor¬ 
rigible thief, on which account it is unpopular as a 
pet. They have been known to enter a house and 
seize upon a baked fowl prepared for other palates, and 
swallow it before an incensed housewife could recover 
it. Though belonging to the stork family, the adjutant adjutant. 

has a decidedly vulturine aspect, in that the head and 

neck are destitute of feathers, and are covered with fleshy excrescences or 
wattles. It has also the ostrich’s digestive powers, being able to swallow a 











THE LIVING WORLD. 



The Sacred Ibis {Ibis religiosa) is an Egyptian bird, though it does not 
breed in that country, migrating further south in the latitude of Khartoum 
for that purpose. It has long been a matter for dispute as to what species of 
ibis the Egyptians once worshipped, nor can the dispute be settled by the 
remains that 'have been recovered embalmed with mummies. Some naturalists even 
maintain that the . sacred ibis was never found native to Egypt, but that the 
specimens which are met with among the mummied remains were imported to 
serve a religious purpose. Dr. Adams, concerning this opinion, says that while he 
finds “no reason for considering the sacred ibis to have been a native at any 
time of either Egypt or Nubia,” he has “no doubt that it was imported by 


388 

live terrapin and after digesting the softer parts ejects the shell and bones. 
The adjutant is about five feet in height, nests upon dead trees, and has 
a very sombre plumage. 

The Jabira {Myderia australia) is a close relation of the adjutant, resem¬ 
bling it both in aspect and habits, though presenting a point of difference in 
having the neck and head covered with feathers of a rich green metallic 
lustre. It is an extremely rare bird, found only in Australia, and even in its 
favorite haunts is so uncommon as to lead to the belief that it will soon 
become extinct. A species of jabira is also found in Brazil. 


MARSH BIRDS: PELICANS, SPOON-BILLS, CRANES, EGRETS, GODWITS AND PLOVERS. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


389 




the ancient Egyptians, and judging from the numbers which are constantly 
turning up in the tombs and pits of Sakkara and elsewhere in Egypt, and 
the accounts of Herodotus, Diodorus and Strabo, the ibis must have been very 
numerous and, like the brahmin bull in India, 

‘ did as it chosed.’ ” Dr. Adams further re¬ 
marks that every street in Alexandria is full 
of them. In certain respects they are useful; 
in others troublesome. They are serviceable 
because they pick up all sorts of small animals 
and the offal that is cast into the street, but 
they are extremely objectionable because of 
their thieving propensities and their dirty 
habits. 

Mummied ibises are usually found alone, 
though sometimes they appear with the sacred 
animals. Hermopolis was the patron city of 
this bird, but we find its remains also among 
the ruins of Thebes and Memphis. The White 
Ibis was also regarded as a sacred bird, hav¬ 
ing been first imported from Italy and kept 
in the temple of Isis. It was the emblem sacred ibis. 

of Troth, who was the secretary of Osiris, 

to whom fell the duty of recounting and perpetuating in writing the deeds 
of persons deceased. 

The ibis nests in tall trees, the mimosa being preferred and usually those 
which stand in the centre of a large morass. Like the herons, these birds are 
gregarious at breeding times, sometimes fairly covering a tree with their nests, 

which are 
very large but 
carefully 
made and 
lin e d with 
feathers. 
Three or four 
eggs of a 
greenish 
white and the 
size of a mal¬ 
lard’s are laid. 
The so-called 
sacred ibis 
has a white 
plumage. The 

scarlet ibis ( ibis faicineiius). Scarlet Ibis 

is a native of 

northern South America, but in summer it appears along the Florida coast, and occa¬ 
sionally as far north as North Carolina. It is one of the handsomest birds that is 
seen within the United States. The Glossy Ibis is also a North American 
visitor, though never seen in any considerable number. Like the scarlet ibis 


390 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


it is a rather small species. The Straw-necked Ibis is a handsome Australian 
species, never found out of that country, though it is rather common in every 

part of that continent. Its name 
is derived from the long straw- 
colored feathers that adorn the neck. 
All the several species have their 
heads destitute of feathers, the body 
is rather plump, legs short, bills 
long and curved downward, and all 
are swift runners. Their general 
habits are very similar. 

The Cobbler’s Awl Bird, or 
Avocet (Recurvirostra avocetta) is 
found in several parts of the United 
States, its range extending from the 
Gulf to Labrador. The Mississippi 
Valley, however, is its favorite haunt, 
though nowhere is it a common 
bird. The body is plump and the 
size of a pigeon, the legs long, the 
plumage pied, with white preponder¬ 
ating, top of head, back of neck, and 
wing coverts black. But the one 
curious feature that distinguishes 
this bird is the long, slim bill, 
sharply pointed and curving upward, 
so that in searching for its food in 
the mud it uses the bill as a scoop, 
it nests upon the ground. 

The Curlew (.Numenius arquata ) is also an American bird, considerably 
larger than 
the avocet, 
and with a 
bill of equal 
length but 
curving down¬ 
ward. Though 
aquatic, and 
waders, I have 
f r e q u ently 
found them 
in Nebraska 
a considerable 
distance from 
water. Their 
flight is 

straight, and curlew. 

while on the 

wing they utter a noise that may be imitated by a boy whistling one long, easy note. 










THE LIVING WORLD. 


39 1 



WHIMBREL. 


The curlew builds its nest upon the ground, sometimes upon high hills 
in the dry vegetation, but more often in marshy localities. Four eggs are 
usually deposited, of a brownish green color, and the smaller ends of the eggs 
are always laid together. The general color 
of the bird is a dark brown, with wing cov¬ 
erts edged with white. The height is about two 
feet. 

The Whimbrel (N. phicopus ), often called 
the Jack Curlew, is found upon the Shetland 
Islands, but so nearly resembles the curlew in 
appearance and habits that the two are easily 
confounded. The cry of the latter, however, is 
very different, resembling in sound the word 
titterel. 

The Godwit (Lineosa cegocephala) is a 
rather common bird about the fenlands and 
marshy districts of the southeast, being especially 
numerous in Florida. They are small, and bear 
a striking resemblance to the jacksnipe, and 
their flesh is equally esteemed. Like others of 

the species, it nests upon the ground, and lays four eggs of light brown color. 

The Jacksnipe ( Gallinago gallinuta ) is a common visitor to the Northern 
States in the spring and fall, going North to breed, and returning to the South to 

spend the winter. In the Mid¬ 
dle States it makes its appear¬ 
ance,. coming from the South, 
early in April, . though some¬ 
times earlier, and remains for 
about six weeks, wdien it pro¬ 
ceeds northward as far as Brit¬ 
ish America, where it breeds. 
On the return it again halts 
during October and November, 
bringing its full-fledged brood, 
when it is usually in splendid 
condition. It generally haunts 
marshy grounds, though I once 
saw a large flock feeding on 
the high sand hills of Dakota. 
The bird has grown much 
wilder in latter years, on account 
of its persistent persecution by 
hunters. When put up it 
starts off in a zigzag or ec¬ 
centric direction, uttering a 
coarse schraik , but soon takes 
a straight course. The sports¬ 
man who makes a success hunting this bird must reserve his fire until 
the snipe assumes a regular flight, which it does before traversing more 



SNIPE CARRYING HER YOUNG. 








392 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



golden plover (Charadrias apricarius ). 


than twenty yards. This species of snipe bears a considerable resemblance to 
the woodcock, though it is not so large. The color is light brown, splotched with 
white, with stripes of grayish white, alternating with deep brown or black running 

over and along the sides 
of the head. It builds its 
nest under a tuft of grass, 
and deposits four eggs of 
an olive white, spotted with 
brown. No bird is more 
attentive to its young, the 
mother having been known 
to carry away her brood 
when threatened by inun¬ 
dation or other danger. 
When thus transferring her 
brood she takes up one at 
a time, bearing them be¬ 
tween her feet, as shown 
in the illustration. 

The Woodcock (Scalo- 
pax rusticola) is another 
well-known American game bird, found principally in the Western States. 

Some years ago it was quite plentiful, but its numbers are rapidly dimin¬ 
ishing. It is nearly equal to a quail in size, which it also resembles in color. 
The bill, how¬ 

ever, is quite 
long, and the 
eyes are situated 
nearly even with 
the crown. It is 

found in marshy 
places, where it 
feeds principally 
by boring in the 
ground. Like 
the jacksnipe, it 
is rarely seen 
until put up, 
when its flight 
is generally only 
a dash upward 
and down again 
a few paces away, 
hence only a 
snap - shot suc¬ 
ceeds in bringing 
it down. It flies 

late in the evening, in a straight line, producing a whispering noise. Its 
nesting habits and care of its young are very similar to those of the jacksnipe 















THE LIVING WORLD. 


393 



THE RUFF. 


It is said, though with what truth I have not been able to learn, that the 
parent often carries its young from the nest to feeding grounds, and returns 
them to the shelter of the woods again, carrying them between her feet like 
the jacksnipe. 

The Ruff (.Machetes pugnax ) is occasionally met with in the Middle States, 
but it is more common in Europe. Though frequently haunting marshy places, 
it is as often seen far inland in dry 
districts, running on the ground in 
search of insects. It is gregarious and 
extremely pugnacious. It derives its 
name from a prominent collar of long, 
but closely set, feathers, which distin¬ 
guishes the male. It is about twelve 
inches long, and though the coloring is 
variable, brown always predominates. 

The Spoon-bill Snipe (. Eurynorhyn- 
cus pygmcens ) is a native of the Arctic 
regions, found principally about the 
coasts of Nova Zembla, though it is 
occasionally met with on the northern¬ 
most shores of Norway and Russia, 
being the sole representative of the 

waders within the boreal zone. In size and color it very much resembles the 
sand-piper, but is distinguished for its very singularly shaped bill, as will be 
seen in the illustration, the natural size of which is shown. But, as we have 
frequently seen, everything is wisely adapted to the purposes of creation, and the 

wisdom of this seemingly strange provision is manifested in the habits of the 

creature. It subsists almost entirely off shrimps, which it catches along the ice¬ 
bound shores, and which its 
bill is specially adapted to 
seize and hold. Its nesting 
habits are not yet known. 

The Golden Plover 

(Charadrms virginicus ) is 

common throughout the 

United States, but more plen¬ 
tiful in the Western States. 
Early in the spring and fall 
it may be seen in large flocks 
about the edge of ponds, 
feeding on insects that burrow 
in the sand or live about 
the water, but when spring 
advances, it moves to freshly ploughed ground, and follows the furrows in 
quest of grubs and worms turned up by the plow. Flying always in flocks, 
they offer an easy target to the sportsman, who sometimes brings down as 
many as a dozen at one shot. In the evening, however, they disperse and 
roost upon the ground in pairs. During the night they may be occasionally 
heard piping their thin notes, and quite as ready to take alarm as in the daytime. 



SPOON-BILL SNIPE. 








394 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


The Kildeer Plover ( Egialitis vociferus ) is also a common bird, with habits 
very similar to those of the golden plover, though they do not go in such large 
flocks. Usually they are found consorting with other species, and making 

the air resonant with their cries of kil-deer , 


or te-te-de-dit te-dit. They are not considered 
as game birds. 

The Sand-piper ( Tringoides hypolenca ) 
is found throughout the Western States in 
the spring and summer season flying in 
large flocks, like blackbirds, or running 
around the shores of ponds tipping their 
tails in a curious fashion. Again they may 
be seen, especially towards mid-day, stand¬ 
ing as still as- so many decoys, in a field, 
ready to rise at any effort to approach them. 
Their bodies are too small to admit of 
them being classed as game birds, though they are frequently sold in markets. 

The Oyster Catcher ( Hcematopus ostralegus) is found all along the Atlantic 
coast, from Maine to Florida, but it 
is more common on the Jersey shore. 

It feeds on crabs, sand-fiddlers and 
other small shell-fish, and may be 
seen running rapidly along the water’s 
edge, driving its bill into the sand 
apparently aimlessly, and again stop¬ 
ping to bore. It will also insert its 
bill between the open shells of an 
oyster and eat the mollusk therein. 

It is a shy bird, and not much 
hunted. Its length is eighteen inches. 

The Pebble-turner (Strepsilas interpret) is found both in North America 
and Europe. The name is derived from its movements when feeding, at 
which times it runs along the beach picking up sand-hoppers, marine worms 

and other Crustacea, and turning over the 
stones in its course, for the purpose of 
getting at the little animals that have taken 
refuge underneath. It also has a curious 
habit of knocking pebbles from side to 
side, though evidently done in search for 
prey. It usually builds its nest under the 
strong shelter of an overhanging rock, safe 
from wind and wave. Its color is a bright 
rust-red, white underneath, with a broad band 
of black above the tail-coverts. 

The Knot, or Irish Sanderling ( Tringa 
canutus ) is also a habitant of' both hemi¬ 
spheres. It is so called in honor of King Canute, and on account of its 
habit of running towards the sea at each receding wave, and retreating again 
at the approach, thus keeping always very near the water. Its habits are, 
otherwise, similar to those of the sand-piper, which it equals in size. 



PEBBLE TURNER. 



OYSTER CATCHER. 



GOLD piper ( Charadrias auralus). 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


395 



IRISH SANDER LING. 


The Marsh Swallow ( Glareola pratincola ) is a singular bird, combining, 
as it does, the characteristic of both swallow and plover, so that no appropriate 
classification has been found for it. The tail and wings are like a swallow’s, 
and the mouth resembles that of the goat-suckers, though its habits are those 
of a marsh plover. It is found chiefly along the Mediterranean. An illustra¬ 
tion of this bird will be found in the matter describing the swallow species, 
over the title of “ fallow swallow.” 

The Scabbard-bill ( Chionis minor ) is 
another bird with conflicting characteristics, 
so many dissimilarities appearing that it 
has been variously classed with pigeons, 
quails, gulls and sandpipers. The latter 
classification is now generally accepted, though 
rather by reason of its habits than because 
of any of its appearances. By some it is 
called the short-billed snipe. The head is 
certainly that of a pigeon, and the bill is 
short and thick, presenting a peculiarity, 
however, in having a sheath issuing from 
the base, and covering half the length of 
the bill. Mr. Darwin is the only person who has given us an account of 
this bird based on personal observation. It is an inhabitant of Patagonia and 
Southern Brazil. It nests on the ground, and produces two broods each 
year. The color of .this bird is pure white, the bill is black, and a part of 
the face is covered by the base of the sheath. 

The Seriema ( Dicholopus cristatus) is an Aus¬ 
tralian bird bearing some resemblance to the crested 
crane but more to the secretary bird, to. which it 

seems to be related as closely as cousinship, at 

least. The legs are long and the seriema can use 
them to such good purpose that it may attain the 
speed of a horse. The head is decorated with a 
crest composed of a dozen feathers, which the bird 
raises and lowers rapidly when excited. It rarely 

enters the water but is never found far from a 

stream or morass. 

The Sultan Hen (. Porphyriv smaragdonotus ) is 
scabbard-bile. found about the lagoons and marshy districts of 

northern South America. It is about three feet in 
height, has very long legs not fitted for speed, however, is of a dun color, 
thick bill, and a bony crest <on the head, which is a provision no doubt to pro¬ 
tect its head against the brush through which it creeps, the same natural pro¬ 
tection being on the head of the helmeted cassowary. It is a poor flyer, and 

therefore keeps about the dense sedges. Its food is small fishes, reptiles an 
insects, in which respects it does not differ from the bitterns. This bird, . °V~ 

ever, occasionally takes to the water, and though its toes are not webbed it is 

said to be a fairly good swimmer. In its nesting habits it resembles the water 
hen, laying usually six eggs of a pale greenish hue m a nest constructed of 
coarse grass, located generally on the edge of a marsh. 



396 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




The Shade Bird (Scopus umbretto ) is a native of West Africa. It is 
usually found alone, except at the nest, in wooded districts, with its head well 
drawn back watching for fishes or walking with measured stride in search of 
frogs, worms and snails. It roosts in trees or on its nest, which is a peculiar 
structure completely vaulted over and shaped like an oven, with entrance from 
the side. The diameter of this nest is about six feet, 
which may be accounted for by the fact that it is 
divided into two or more compartments to provide a 
resting-place for the parents as well as for the young; 
as the bird never migrates a single nest serves it for 
many seasons. The natives regard this bird with 
great awe, believing it has the power of a witch. The 
size of the bird is equal to that of a night heron, and 
its plumage is very sombre. There is a crest of 
feathers on the head which may be raised or depressed 
at will. 

The Rail (Crex carolinas ) belongs to a class of 
which there are thirty-two well-known species dis¬ 
tributed over all portions of the globe, a dozen of 
which are residents of the United States. But the 
general character of these is everywhere the same. 
They run swiftly, but their flight is slow, and with 
shade bird. the legs hanging down; they become extremely fat, 

are fond of concealment, and usually prefer running 
to flying. . Most of them are migratory and abound during the summer in tem¬ 
perate regions. The rail generally builds its nest in a tussock of grass, and 
forms it of well-interlaced dry vegetable fibres. 

The female lays from four to six eggs of a 
dirty-white, specked with brown or black. The 
young are covered with a soft velvety black 
down, and leave the nest almost as soon as 
they are hatched, taking to the grass where 
they run about and look like mice. 

Rails are seldom met with far from a 
marshy region. They make their home among 
the reeds and subsist off snails, bugs and 
other insects, and also off certain seeds of 
marsh grasses. Though not specially fitted 
for the water they can swim well and 
are excellent divers. If wounded they 
drop into the water and diving seize hold of 
the bottom of a reed where they cannot 
easily be dislodged, and will drown them¬ 
selves rather than come to the surface if they think it is unsafe to do so. 


SWIMMING BIRDS. 

Prom the description of the wading birds, all the most interesting species 
of which, having been given, we shall proceed to a consideration of the next 
order, which, in the natural sequence of progression, must include the numerous 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


397 





species that not only find their subsistence about the water, but which make the 
water a part of their natural element, swimming, diving, floating and disport¬ 
ing themselves among the waves with the grace 
and naturalness of fishes. In these birds we ob¬ 
serve wonderful provisions, specially adapting 
them to the life nature has designed them to lead. 

We find that while the waders have long legs, 
and toes well spread to give them firm footing, 
those that swim have short legs and webbed feet, 
and that the legs are placed well towards the tail, 
because this affords an increase of leverage in the 
act of propulsion. We also notice that swim¬ 
ming birds are provided with a very thick coat 
of feathers, which greatly increases their buoy¬ 
ancy, and that these feathers are covered with an 
oily substance which exudes from the root of 

the feathers, and that this natural supply is sultan hen. 

increased at the pleasure of the bird by an ex¬ 
traction from the excretory oil-duct that is- 
situated on the bird’s rump. In many 
species this oily exudation is so great as to 
render the feathers unfit for human use, 
but in all such cases we find that the sup¬ 
ply is necessary because such birds spend 
nearly all their time in the water. This oil 
not only renders the feathers impervious to 
water but also contributes greatly to the 
warmth of the bird, as well as enabling it 
to move with greater ease through the water. 
We shall also find that each species is 
specially provided with means for taking the 
food upon which nature intended that it should 
subsist. If it be appointed to take its prey 
during flight the wings are expansive and strong; 
if it lives upon prey taken beneath the water it 
is fitted for diving at the expense of flight; if 
it be designed to fish in the sea or seize its 
prey in the air, then nature has abundantly 
qualified it by special provisions of beak, claw 
and the means "for swift progression through 
the water. All these wonderful attributes will 
clearly appear in the descriptions following. 

The first species we shall consider is the 
Goose, omitting mention of the domestic spe- 
i, with which every one is supposed to be 


WATER RAIL. 


cies 


pee-wit ( Vanellus cristatus). 


acquainted, and particularly because it was from 
the wild varieties that our present domestic 
geese and ducks descended. There are nearly fifty different species of geese, 
found very widely distributed, but all essentially have the same habits and a. 
general description may therefore be applicable to all. 




398 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


The wild goose is found among the rice fields of the South in winter, 
though he goes on southward as far as the equator, remaining there until 
spring when he seeks the breeding-grounds of the far North, extending his 
flight even to the frozen clime of Baffin’s Bay. Their migrations northward are 
seldom made in flocks, but after broods are hatched and the. chill of approach¬ 
ing winter admonishes a change of climate, they assemble in immense flocks 
under the leadership of a gander who is invariably larger than any of his 
associates. At the word of command the journey southward is begun. They 
are thus frequently seen flying at great elevations in flocks of fifty or more, 
spread out in various shapes, but generally in the form of an acute angle, 
speeding all day and resting at night. Their cry is frequently heard when they 
are so high above us as to be imperceptible; and this seems bandied from one to 

the other, as among hounds in the pursuit. 
Whether this be the note of mutual encourage¬ 
ment, or the necessary consequence of re¬ 
spiration, is doubtful; but they seldom exert 
it when they alight in these journeys. 

Upon their coming to the ground by day 
they range themselves in a line, like cranes, 
and seem rather to have descended for rest,' 
than for other refreshment. When they have 
sat in this manner for an hour or two, I 
have heard one of 'them, with a loud, long 
note, sound a kind of charge, to which the 
rest punctually attended, and they pursued 
their journey with renewed alacrity. Their 
flight is very regularly arranged; they either 
go in a line abreast, or in two lines, joining in an angle in the middle. I doubt 
whether the form of their flight be thus arranged to cut the air with greater ease, 
as is commonly believed; I am more apt to think it is to present a smaller mark 
to fowlers from below, for of all birds the goose, despite his reputation for stupidity, 
is one of the most sagacious. Sometimes they not only alight in the central parts 
of the United States, but remain in certain localities for a considerable while early 
in the spring and late in the fall. They are very fond of young wheat and are 
occasionally very destructive, and especially so in California, where the wheat-grow¬ 
ers employ hunters to drive them off their fields. When feeding one or more 
sentinels are always on watch, with heads well elevated and eyes and ears alert 
to catch sight or sound of any enemy. The most successful means employed 
in hunting them may be briefly described as follows: When the geese are 
found to frequent a sand-bar, as they frequently do, the hunter repairs \at night 
to the spot where they most often assemble, digs a hole in the sand and places 
a barrel therein sunk to the level of the surface. In this he secretes himself 
and awaits the dawn of day and the coming of his prey. 

Geese often frequent cornfields, in which the corn has been cut and shocked; 
learning their range the hunter goes before daylight and secretes himself in 
one of the shocks and then waits the return of the game. Others hunt them 
by erecting blinds, behind which they lie and take chances of getting a shot 
as the geese fly over them. Yet others use a gentle horse, behind which the 
hunter walks as the horse is urged slowly towards a. settled flock, but no one 



wild goose (Bernicla torquata ). 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


399 




save an experienced hunter is likely to meet with much success putting any 
of these means into, execution, but the novice may find a flock distracted, or 
less mistrustful, during a heavy snow-storm and make a heavy bag. 

The Cape Barron Goose ( Cereopsis New Holland) is one of the largest 
of the genera. As its name implies, it is chiefly found in Australia. It is 
sometimes captured and domesticated, while the eggs are often found and 
hatched out by domestic poultry. But, though it is considered a great acqui¬ 
sition to the poultry-yard, its disposition is very 
quarrelsome, and it occasionally commits great 
havoc among the other fowls. 

The Gray Goose (. Anser cinereus ) is seldom 
seen in this country, nor is it often met with 
in Europe now, though formerly it was quite 
numerous. From this species it is believed our 
common domestic goose is descended. 

The Ring-necked Goose (. Bernicla tor- 
quata ) is our common species of wild goose , 
found plentifully distributed in the western part 
of the United States, and in the summer time 
may be found far within the Arctic circle. The 
name bernicla , or barnacle , has been given to 
this species by old sailors, who formerly sup- cape barron goose. 

posed it to be a product of the barnacle shell , 

or so-called goose-mussel. This belief was not confined to ignorant sailors, 
but was affirmed by the early naturalists. 

The Brent Goose (. Bernicla brenta ), more commonly called Brant, is also 

a frequenter of the United States, usually 
preceding the other species in the spring 
and fall by one or two weeks. It is quite 
numerous, resembles the common wild goose, 
except that it is smaller in size, and does 
not have the conspicuous ring of white 
and black feathers about the jaws. 

Next to the goose (though it might 
more properly precede it) is the Swan, 
which is given a subordinate rank because 
of its scarcity, and because it is very rarely 
seen in this country outside of a public 
park. In England the bird has for more 
than two centuries been under royal pro- 
GRAY eag goose (Anser ferus). tection, very . severe penalties being pro¬ 

vided against its destruction, except by legal 
authority. The swan is there regarded as a royal bird, and no one may raise 
them without a license from the Crown. Each person, so licensed, must file 
a special “ swan mark,” by which his birds may be distinguished, the mark 
being cut in the upper mandible of the bird. All swans which reach a certain 
age without being marked are called clear bills , and become property of the 
Crown, unless they be kept by special permit, granting the right to seize and 
keep any adult swan which has not been marked. 


400 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




WHIT®, OR HIGH-BACKED SWAN. 


The process of marking the swans is termed swan-upping , a name which has 
been corrupted into swan-hopping , and is conducted with much ceremony. The 
technical term of the swan-mark is cigninota. Swan-upping of the Thames takes 
place in the month of August, the first Monday in the month being set aside 
for the purpose, when the markers of the Crown and the Dyers’ and Vintners’ 
companies take count of all swans in the river, and mark the clear-billed birds. 

which have reached maturity. The 
fishermen who protect the birds and 
aid them in nesting/ are entitled to a 
fee for each young bird. 

Swans are very destructive enemies 
to fish, devouring the smaller species 
but doing the largest damage in the 
spawning season, when they will leave 
any other kind of food for fish-spawn, 
and have been known to entirely depopu¬ 
late ponds of the best food species, such 
as bass, croppie, pike, and carp. 

The swan builds her nest of sticks 
and straw, and usually locates it beside 
the water’s edge of an unfrequented 
island. She generally lays six or seven 
eggs, of a dull or very pale green color, 
like the duck’s, though I have seen the 
eggs as white as that of a hen’s. When incubating, the swan is prompt to resist 
any invasion of her premises, and becomes a furious fighter in defence of her 
young. The cygnets—young—are covered with a fluffy down of light blue, no 
feathers showing until they are two months old. During the first few weeks 
of their life they mount upon the 
mother’s back, who conveys them from 
place to place. If on shore she helps 
them to gain their position by lifting 
them by one leg, but when in the 
water she sinks until her back is level 
with the surface, when they easily 
scramble into a secure place. 

The species are not very numer¬ 
ous, and include only the Trum¬ 
peting Swan ( Cygnus buccinator), the 
Small Swan ( Cygnus minor), the 
Whistling Swan {C. americanus), the 
White Swan (C. olcr) and the Black 
Swan (C. atratus ), the former being 

the only species well known in this country, though the whistling swan was 
formerly quite plentiful at certain seasons in Chesapeake Bay. 

The Goose-anger, or Goose-sawer (Mergus merganser ), also called Water- 
pheasant, Sheldrake , Saw-bill , and other local names, is a really beautiful bird, 
combining features of the goose, duck and cormorant. His home is in northern 
latitudes, extending around the globe near the Arctic circle, and southward to 


BTACK, OR MOURNING SWAN. 





THE LIVING WORLD. 


401 





the North temperate. He spends nearly all his time in the water, is an expert 
swimmer and a wonderful diver, being able to shoot along under the surface 
with the rapidity of a fish, upon which it feeds. The coloring of the male is 
a blood-red bill, raven-black head, snowy-white breast, and black-and-dun back 
and tail-feathers. It nests along the shore usually, and lays from ten to four¬ 
teen oblong eggs of a light-green color. The young take to water within an 
hour after birth, and are so active that they 
rarely suffer capture by even wild animals that 
prey upon ducks. 

The Cormo¬ 
rant ( Phalocro - 
corax carbo ), like 
the goose-anger, is 
an excellent swim¬ 
mer and diver, 
both pursuing 
similar habits in 
procuring their 
food. The goose- 
anger, however, 
lives chiefly off 

small fishes while duck-goose ( Vulpanser tadoma). cormorant. 

the cormorant is 

only content with larger prey. I have frequently watched them, while fishing, 
and noted with what dexterity they would dive and seize a fish of four and five 
pounds weight, which they would swallow with surprising ease. A more amus¬ 
ing sight is offered by several cormorants making a raid on eel-beds, either 

when the eels are burrowing in the mud, 
or ascending streams to breed. It is a 
most laughable spectacle to see the birds 
swallow their wriggling, slimy prey, only 
to have the eel rise again, and be again 
and again swallowed, until exhaustion 
prevents the creature from making further 
effort to escape. 

The cormorant is such a skilful fisher 
that it is commonly tamed by the Chinese, 
and trained to go out with their masters, 
sitting patiently upon the prow of a boat 
until given the order to begin the chase. 
At the word of command, they dash into 
the water, seize the fish in their beaks, 
goose sawyer. and re turn with it to their owners. In 

beginning to train it an iron ring is put on the bird’s neck, which 
prevents it from swallowing the fish taken, and this is not removed until 
the cormora7it fairly forgets that it has the ability to seize and swallow its 
live prey. After the birds are thoroughly trained, when one of.them captures 
a fish which is too large for it to subdue, one of its companions will come 
to its assistance, and together they will convey the prize to their master. 

26 





402 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


The cormorant builds its nest on the shore, of sticks, sea-weed and grass, 
in which the female lays usually from four to six rather small eggs, of a pale 
greenish cast. When the young are first hatched they are destitute of down, 
being covered with black skin. The general color of the cormorant is black, 
sprinkled with hairy feathers of white, with a crest on the crown of the head. 
The upper parts of the body are brown, mottled with black, and the front of 
the throat and under surface is a velvety black. The length of the bird is 
about three feet. 

The Water Hen (. Fulica atra) is common wherever in English waters 
there are rushes. The water he?i , or moor hen , apportions the brightest plumage 
to the male, which is dark green in color, except tor blackish gray on the head, 
neck and belly, and red at the base of its bill and on the upper thigh. The 
water hen builds .its nests of sticks, sedge and leaves; not content with one 



FISHING WITH CORMORANTS. 


nest, it makes several, and as its fancy suggests moves its family from one 
to another. Should the nest be threatened by rising water she continues to add 
to the height and thus protects it from an overflow. When the water hen is 
to be absent for any length of time from the nest, she leaves it so covered with 
leaves as to very thoroughly conceal it. The illustration in The Living World, 
however, shows a water hen which has just left its nest, and another hen 
watching the sportings of her half-grown chicks. This bird is both a 
wader and a swimmer, for which reason it is used as a link between these two 
classes and properly introduces the swimming birds of The Living World. 
Another species technically known as fulica chloropus is common to the fresh 
waters of America under the more familiar name of mud hen. It is found in 
ponds and especially where lily-pads are abundant, the roots and seeds of 





THE LIVING WORLD. 


403 




which it eats with avidity. The toes are only partially webbed, as seen in the 
small illustration. It is about the size of a teal duck and at certain seasons 
of the year, notably the fall, its flesh is most toothsome though at other times 
it is so rank as to be fairly nauseating. The nest of this species is admirably 
shown in the accompanying illustration. The color of this bird is a dark 
dun, only a shade lighter on the breast, with sharp pointed bill of pure white 
and legs and toes a light 
green. 

Sportsmen and epi¬ 
cures so often sing the 
praises of the Mallard 
Duck (Anas m osckus ), 
which is so fond of frequent¬ 
ing the ponds almost about 
our doors, as to furnish 
the fullest opportunity for 
its study. It is regarded 
as the progenitor of the 
common domestic duck. 

Like the eider duck it 
uses down for the lining 
of its nest. It requires 
about a month for chang¬ 
ing its plumage, shedding 
the most brilliantly col¬ 
ored feathers first. Its 
head, neck and breast English water hen. 

are of glossy green, though 

the last inclines to brown, except that it wears a narrow white collaret. Its 
back is russet, deepening into black as it approaches the tail; the tail feathers 

are brown ash with the exception of four, 
which look like black velvet, and in the drake 
are curled. The wings are brown ash till 
near the extremity where they*are black, the 
two colors being separated by a broad white 
vertical band. 

The Bridal Duck, or American Sum¬ 
mer Duck (Anas sponsa), is the American 
species of the mandarin , and deserves a more 
extended notice of its coloring, since it may 
at any time delight the eyes of such of the 
readers of The Living World as find them¬ 
selves awakened to pleasing observation of the 
animal life around them. The top of its head is green and purple, blended 
at times but generally distinct; its cheeks are fawn-colored and a cream- 
colored stripe runs from the back of the neck to the eyes; the neck on its 
sides is provided with long bright chestnut feathers, while purple prevails on 
the throat and breast. It has four shoulder-stripes, two of white and two of black, 
and its russet-colored wings have shining green margins ; the underparts make a 


AMERICA WATER HEN. 









404 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


sharp contrast of white. As in the case of the Asiatic species the drake wears 
the fine clothes while the duck dresses sombrely. It winters at the south, but 
migrates as far north as Nova Scotia. It frequents ponds and marshes but 
builds its nest in the hollows of trees and covers it with small feathers and 

sticks. Audubon says 
that when the nest is 
at some distance from 
the water, the duck 
will carry in its bill 
the ducklings, taking 
them one at a time to 
their natural element; 
on the other hand, if 
the tree be in the 
immediate vicinity the 
ducklings are allowed 
to drop from the tree 
into the water, or are 
compelled by their 
parent to scuffle over 
the ground on foot. 

The Mandarin 
(.Dendronessa galericu- 
lata ) is a typical mal¬ 
lard, but has its habitat 
in Eastern Asia, and 
is distinguished b y 
wearing ruffs on the 
sides of the neck, and 
by fan-like wings. It 
is a species most 
highly prized in 
China, and rarely seen 
in other countries even 
as a naturalized citi¬ 
zen or a forced so¬ 
journer. The plumage 
of the drake is remark¬ 
ably beautiful but in 
the summer time he 
exchanges it for the 
soberest brown and 
gray which are the 
colors uniformly worn 
by his better half. 
During the other sea¬ 
sons the drake luxuriates in the most bewildering combination of the richest 
purple, russet, green and white. He is strictly monogamous and with his 
spouse is to be found perched on trees which border on the ponds in China. 



NEST OE THE WATER HEN (Fulicd chlOTOpUS ). 





















THE LIVING WORLD. 


405 


The European Sheldrake, or Burrow Duck (Tadorna vulpanser), takes 
its name from its using rabbit burrows as its nest. It is as cunning as a fox 
and hence is sometimes called the sly goose. To protect its nest from the hunter 
it will pretend to be lame or maimed, and if he is deceived will finally cause 
him to believe that he has started in pursuit of an ignis fatuus. It does not 
change its 
coloring 
with the sea¬ 
sons, but in¬ 
stead of this 
moults once 
a year. The 
male claims 
no greater 
brilliancy of 
plumage 
than is al¬ 
lotted to the 
female. In 
Jutland the 
inhabitants 
have built 
up quite an 
industry out 
of the eggs 
and downy 
feathers o f 
the burrow 
ducks , and 

provided mallard duck. 

them with 

burrows which, while satisfying the birds, reduce the labor' expended in robbing 
them, as the duck divests herself of her down with which to line her nest. 




WOOD, OR BRIDAL DUCK. MANDARIN DUCK. EIDER DUCK. 


Many of my readers have seen eider-down, and the next of the ducks of 
which we are to speak is the Eider Duck (Somateria mollissima). It belongs to 
the Arctic zone, and is abundant in Ireland, Norway and Greenland. Norway has 
recently divided with Africa the palm of interest for pleasure-seeking travellers, and 

















406 the living world. 

hence any reader of general literature is likely to meet accounts of the eider-duck , 
or at least allusions to its appearance aud habits. The eider-down is collected 
from the nests, and one of these will yield somewhat over a single ounce. It 
is said that the annual exportation from Greenland and Iceland exceeds six or 
seven thousand pounds, so that the eider-duck feathers not only its own nest but 
that of the persons who steal the provision it has made for the comfort of its 
young. In Norway the eider-duck has given rise to an industry so considerable, 
so general, and so important that it is protected by special legislation, as well 

as by the interested regard of those who 
derive from it their means of subsistence. 
The eider-duck , like the brahma bulls and 
the sacred monkeys of India, has learned 
to improve its opportunities and will in 
the most fearless manner enter the houses 
of the peasants and there build its nest, 
plucking the down from its own breast to 
insure the comfort of its young. It is al¬ 
lowed to select any location that strikes its 
fancy, so that at times it will rob the 
family of the use of their beds, a privation 
which would be greater if these were any 
softer than the floor. The eider-duck is 
about two feet and a quarter in length, 
and its wings when extended will stretch 
fully three feet. It weighs six or seveu 
pouuds, but is rarely eaten because of “ an 
ancient and a fish-like” taste. It is still 
found in America as far south as the State 
spectacled eider duck, of Maine, but in earlier days was com¬ 

mon even in the vicinity of Boston. It has 
been discovered that the eider-duck if robbed of its nest and eggs will repair 
its loss by repeating its previous efforts, and 
that it will continue for several times this at¬ 
tempt to recover from misfortune. Hence the 
collectors of eider-down avail themselves of 
this maternal interest, and turn the duck 
into somewhat of a drudge. The eider-duck 
is a good diver aud an excellent swimmer, 
but as a walker it is unusually awkward 
even for a waddler. The plumed drake has 
a head velvety black on top and green on 
the back, white side-face, green ear-muffs, 
white throat and upper neck, buff lower neck, 
black breast and under parts, except for a white spot on the under body back 
of the legs. Its wings have the first and second series of feathers black, 
and the unchanging third set long and white; green is the color of its legs. 
The duck is a mottled russet. 

The Piping Duck, Red-headed Poker, or Pochard Dun-Bird (Fuli- 
gula clangula) ) appears in northern Europe during the early fall, and migrates in 



PIPING DUCK. 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


407 




the spring. It is noted as a diver, going deep into the water and swimming 
long distances under the surface, so that unless entrapped, it generally escapes 
the hunter. While moving 6 j ? 

about it keeps uttering a cry 
which has the monotony of a 
Scottish bagpipe. 

The Canvas-back Duck 
{/Ethia valisneria ) is found 
at different seasons throughout 
the United States and Central 
America, though it is best 
known through its annual visits 
to “ My Maryland,” where, like 
an epicure, it feasts upon wild 
celery. It is frequently the 
victim of the idle curiosity 
which distinguishes the present 
period, for whole flocks will 
swim within short range of the 
hunter through their interest 
in the novelty of a dog trained 
to run up and down the shore 
while ornamented with a gaily- 
colored cloth. Epicures differ TEAE DUCK (Q Uf m edula cnerca )). 

about the relative excellence of the various species of wild ducks, but it is 
certain that the admirers of the canvas-back have been most successful in attain¬ 
ing a popular verdict. The coloring above is gray 
or white, waved with slight touches of black; 
white beneath; red chestnut on the head and 
throat; blackish brown on the neck and breast 5 
and black on the rump. It goes in some locali¬ 
ties by the names white-back and sheldrake. Its 
quickness as a swimmer and diver marks it as an 
uncertain object for the sportsman. 

The Grebes ( Colymbi ) are queer looking crea¬ 
tures and suggest the idea that they represent the 
most conservative and least fully developed spe¬ 
cies of ducks. In the first place they are desti¬ 
tute of any tail, but then possibly as a com¬ 
pensation their heads are adorned with differently- 
colored and variously-shaped ruffs, crests, and 
other similar ornaments. They are unusually and 
noticeably flat-footed, and the feet are separated 
into broad lobes. They are found in both hemi¬ 
spheres throughout the temperate zone, and pass 
crested grebe. their time almost wholly in the water or under 

the water. They build nests of sea weeds and 
other vegetation, and fastening them to the grass or rushes, let them float upon the 
surface of the water. The grebes winter in salt water and summer in fresh 




408 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



water. They are remarkable for their expertness and quickness as divers, and 
though usually swimming well on the surface can, when frightened, so flatten 

themselves out as to allow 
nothing but their necks and 
the ridge of their backs to ap¬ 
pear. 

The Golden-crested Grebe 

(Colymbus cristatus ) is European 
in its habitat. Its fan-shaped 
cowl and neck valance which, 
though long in coniparison with 
the size of its head, reaches but 
a small way on its long neck, 
the white coloring about it£ eyes 
and its beak give to it the ap¬ 
pearance of having combined an 
owl’s head, a crane’s neck and 
a grouse’s body. The coloring 
of the golden-crested grebe is 
dark brown on the top of the 
head, white on the cheeks and 
around the eyes, and chestnut 
on the ruff. On the back the 
undermost feathers are white 
and the outer ones a chestnut 
brown and both have a satin 

GOLDEN-CRESTED GREBE. sheen. ^ neck> thrQat and 

abdomen are white, and the legs green on the outer side and yellow on the 
inner part. It swims 
about with its duck¬ 
lings now by its side 
and again on its back. 

The Little Grebe, 
or Dabchick ( Colym¬ 
bus minor or Podilybus 
podiceps ), is found 
on the eastern coast 
of North America, 
but lives on inland 
ponds and rivers. In 
comparison with other 
grebes it is a pigmy, 
resembling a fair sized 
young gosling. It 
prefers a roomy dwell¬ 
ing so that its nest 
looks as if intended 
for quite a number of ducks fully as large as the mother. These nests 
will often be found amongst the pond-lilies which serve as material, founda¬ 
tion and landscape for the foreground. 


FLOATING NESTS OF THE LITTLE GREBE. 















THE LIVING WORLD. 


409 



The Crested Gorfou, or Crested Penguin (. Eudypes clirysocoma ), is found 
in Patagonia, where its loud, continuous cry and gilded crest make it quite 
sure of attracting attention. Like the other members of the penguin family, 
it uses its wings not for flight, but for accelerating its movements when running 
(in which case they are used like fore legs), and for oars when in the water. 
It has the habits of its family, which are very curious and well worth attention. 
These birds are gregarious, and the flocks contain seemingly innumerable indi¬ 
viduals, reaching quite often forty or fifty thousand. When not in the water, 
they subject themselves to the strictest martial law, and are told off into corps, 
battalions, regiments, companies, and squads. The young, those that are moult¬ 
ing, the setting birds, and of every other condition are required to remain with 
their own kind, and confine themselves to prescribed bounds. The eggs are 
carried, until hatched, between 
the thighs of the hen, but the 
hen does not exert herself 
seeking food, for her husband 
is at once devoted and a regu¬ 
lar and bountiful “ provider.” 

There is but one young one 
in a brood, and as soon as it 
can stand upon its own feet 
the hen joins her husband in 
going to market, and the young 
always take their food by insert¬ 
ing their bill into those of their 
parents. The eccentricity of 
th o. gorfou's crest, in which each 
particular hair takes a differ¬ 
ent direction, suggests the 
tousled locks of Meg Merriles. 

In making its arrangements 
inland, each gorfou is assigned 
its own square in the regularly 
laid out encampment, and these 
penguins , sitting bolt upright, 
produce the impression of an 
assemblage of Indian huts. city of the crested gorfou. 

The crested gorfou is in size 

about as large as a duck, and bears some general resemblance to a trained 
duck practising its antics. 

The Arctic Parrot, Crab Diver, or Guillemot ( Uria troile\ can walk, fly, 
swim and dive. The most singular fact in its history is its laying its eggs on 
the ledges of the sheerest precipices where one would imagine that they would 
be constantly exposed to destruction from the high winds. The black of its bill 
runs in a band over the head and, with the exception, of the white tips of the 
wings, prevails upon the upper parts. The bird generally is snowy white, 
except for a collaret of brownish-gray, and dark gray colorings on the abdomen 
just below the wings, and again from the /eet to the tail. The wing coverts 
are also of a dark color, sometimes black. 







spectacled or great auk. giant pengXtin ( Aptenodytes pa tag on ica). 

bearing some resemblance to the back of a razor-blade. It is very similar in 
habits and size to the following species. 

The Little Auk, or Razor Bird ( Alle alle ), is called by the greatest variety 
of names— sea dove , sea pigeon , rotge , for example. Its habitat is in the Arctic 
Atlantic, and it is specially abundant about Spitzbergen. In the frost-made clefts 
and cavelets of the rocks the little auk lays its eggs and raises its family. Its 
bill, as the illustration on page 412 shows, is altogether unique. The young 


410 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


The Spectacled Auk, or Great Auk (Alca impennis), belongs to northern¬ 
most Europe. When it is in the water it is' almost impossible to pursue it 
quickly enough to get within shooting range, but like the albatross it can be 
caught with a hook. It is rapidly becoming extinct and, in spite of the 
extremely high price which either the bird or its eggs command, the museums 
of the world contain but thirty-four birds, and but forty-two eggs. Collections 
of birds’ eggs are quite important to naturalists, but the objects sought by The 
Living World forbid any discussion of so large a theme. The spectacled auk 

is black above and white 
below; around and below 
the eyes are white markings 
(which give the auk its popu¬ 
lar name) and the small 
wings or flippers are bordered 
with white on the upper arm. 

The Razor-Bill (A lea 
tarda ) has its habitat in the 
Arctic sea, and is so called 
on account of its mandible 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


411 

resemble little fluffy goslings, and are frequently carried on the back of the 
parent, and. left swimming on the water when the parent dives. 

The Giant Penguin, or King Penguin (. Aptenodytes patagonica), is about 
three feet in length, bluish-black above and satiny-white below. Its habits are 
such as have been described when discussing the crested gorfou. It is very 
numerous in Patagonia and in the Falkland Islands, and is frequently mentioned 
by explorers and sailors. 

The Pelican {Pelicanus ) has, as the reader will have discovered, been praiged 
for qualities which belong quite as much to the eider duck, the whale, and vari¬ 
ous other creatures, whose affectionate self-sacrifice for their young is quite 
touching to one’s sentiments. To the family belong the tropic bird , the darters 
or snake-birds , the gannets , the cormorants and the true pelicans. The gregari¬ 
ousness, beautiful plumage and striking appearance of the pelicans always attract 
the attention of those who visit lower Europe and Asia, or Africa, and of those 
who go to our museums of natural history and to our zoological gardens. 
Were it not for its head, bill and pouch, the pelican might be mistaken for a 



GREAT auk (Alea nupennis). penguins (Aptenodytes patagonica). 


species of goose. The pouch will hold about fifteen pounds of fish, and, when 
the pelican has filled his game-bag, he would be free from the necessity 
for further effort, except for the fact that he is imposed upon by a species 
of hawk. This cunning creature, too indolent to catch his own fish, keeps 
watch upon the pelican , and when the latter retires after a day’s sport, attacks 
him and, as he opens his mouth, snatches the fish from it. The American 
White Pelican (. Pelicanus erythrorhyncus ) is common in the Mississippi Valley;, 
the Brown Pelican is also found about Southern shores of the United 
States consorting with the white species. Pelicans are strong swimmers and 
excellent flyers. It is found associated especially with the flamingo, as one 
often sees a blonde and brunette cultivating companionship. Montgomery is 
still popular with readers of English poetry, and it will therefore be un¬ 
necessary to more than refer to the homes of the pelicans , as these are so 
graphically described in the “ Pelican Island.” The pelican was known 
long enough ago to receive mention in the Bible, so that its lineage is at least 
ancient. 




412 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


The pelican has long enjoyed the honor of typifying parental affection and 
although not undeserving of its wide reputation is not singular in this worthy 
characteristic, as the readers of The Living World will ascertain when reading 


about the mammalia, 
has been known to 


The 


assume 


pelican is very marked 
the labor of both birds 


m its 
when 


and 


domestic virtues 
a broken leg, a use¬ 
less wing, or any 
other physical in¬ 
jury has disabled his 
companion. In one 
case which was stud¬ 
ied by a competent 
observer, the male 
bird constantly 
brought food to his 
helpmeet who had 
her wing broken by 
the hunter. He 
manifested the deep¬ 
est and most sus¬ 
tained solicitude ,and 
seemed to care quite 
as much that she 
should not exert 
herself unnecessarily 
as that she should 
have a sufficiency 
of food. The peli¬ 
can of poetry and 
fable offers, if need 
be, its own 1 i fe ’ s 
blood for the sustenance of its fam¬ 
ished young ; the pelican of science 
without going so far, leaves no effort 
untried to see that those dependent 
upon it do not suffer from privation. 
The pelican does not put before its 
young the prey which it has secured, 
but opening its bill allows the young 
to forage in the larder which its 
pouch provides. In the early morn¬ 
ing and evening it will gather in 
companies and start for its fishing- 
grounds. Having selected a shallow 
bay or pond the company arranges 
itself into a crescent some ten feet 
distant from the shore. They now begin in concert to beat the water with their 
wings while steadily marching toward the shore and driving before them the fright¬ 
ened fish. When this task has been accomplished they begin to feast and to store 
their pouches, though they magnanimously permit other birds to enjoy the bounti¬ 
ful provision which by intelligent effort they have thus made. 



LITTLli AUK, OR RAZOR BIRD. 


















THE LIVING WORLD. 


4 i 3 

The Tropic Bird (Phcethon csthereus ) is a splendid specimen of swift 
moving creatures, and is very striking in its appearance. Except for 
the short, stout beak its head and neck suggest the white pigeon. The 
back immediately over the wings is scalloped brownish-black, and the wings 
have a black edge from the tips half way their length. The black back 
markings are separated by a wave-like white band which immediately after 
expands so as to cover the rest of the body. Its tail consists of several long 
shaft feathers curved and projecting like an elephant’s tusks. Its habitat is 
Mauritius, and its young in no wise suggest the parent, as they are little 
round cottony balls. Its body is about two feet and a half long while the tail 



TROPIC BIRD (.Phceton csthereus), frigate bird (Tachypetes aquila), and brown pelican. 


will reach a foot and three-quarters. It is very graceful in its motions, seem¬ 
ing to dart through the air, and can remain on the wing without apparent 
limit of time. It is generally found within two or three hundred miles of 
the coast, but has been seen at four times this distance. It constantly emits a 
harsh cry so that it has sometimes been called the boatswain , while its peculiar 
tail has gained for it yet another name,—that of the star-tall. 

The Booby (Sula fusca) is a wild gannet which must have given rise 
to the comparison “as stupid as a goose.” It will devote its whole time to 
fishing, and tamely and wonderingly suffer itself to be robbed of fish aiter 
fish by the frigate bird. It is often caught by putting a bait upon a board 



























4H 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


upon which the booby will dash down so violently as t© kill itself or else will 
transfixHtself by driving its bill into the wood. 

The Darter ( Plotus ) exists as an African species as well as an American 

one. The head and neck look 
as if they belonged to a long- 
beaked snake; and in swim¬ 
ming it does not expose its 
large body, so that the resem¬ 
blance is thus increased. Add to 
this that in diving it is quicker 
than a flash and the propriety of 
its popular name is evident. 

The Sea-Swallow, or Tern 
(.Sterna hirundo ), is a gull which 
has been named from the swal¬ 
low-like, forked-shape of its tail. 
Jet black is the color of the top 
of the head and on the back 
of the neck; the under parts 
are white, and the rest of the 
body a gray ashen color; the 
legs, feet and bill are like red 
coral though the extremities are 
perfectly black. It builds the 
rudest kind of a nest out of 
sticks, stones and grass. 
Another species of the tern is 
the Noddy {Anous stolidus). It 
flies like a night-hawk, although 
its habits are not nocturnal. It 
builds its nest sometimes on the rocks and sometimes in the trees. It is a 
slovenly housekeeper, and uses the same nest year after year, adding to the 
structure until it becomes relatively 
gigantic, but never troubling itself 
about any house-cleaning. The noddy 
is about a foot and a quarter in length, 
and its nest is robbed of the eggs for 
the supply of the table. It dresses in 
a chocolate color, but varies this by 
buff on the top of the head and the 
forehead, by brownish gray on the back 
, of the head, and by black on the bill, 
on the legs, and on the feet. 

The Scissors-bill Gull (Rhyncops 
nigra) is met with alike in America 
and in Africa, and the lower mandible 
shuts into a groove in the upper in a 
manner to justify its popular name, 
grows lighter until at the base it is the color of Guinea gold. It feeds mostly 



BOOBY. 


This beak, black at the tip, constantly 



TROPIC BIRD ROBBING THE BOOBY. 











THE LIVING WORLD, 


4i5 

upon mollusks and crustaceans, and is specially fond of oysters in the shell. 
When the oyster closes the shell before it has been dragged from its home 



SEA SWALLOWS HELPING A WOUNDED MATE. 

the sdssors-bill is said to allow its beak to be held by the oyster while it 
breaks the shell by dashing it violently against the rocks. 

The Gulls (. Laridcs ) are divided into 



giant gull (Lestris catarractes). 


(Larus marznus) is about two and a half 
swimmer than most of its family. It i 


true gulls , terns or sea-swallows , and 
shearwaters , which are a frequent and a 
familiar sight at sea and along the coasts. 
They are poor swimmers and unable to 
dive, but they can float with grace and 
ease, although they pass most of their 
life on the wing. They are protected 
by the superstitions of the sea, except 
when some “ summer visitor” at a seaside 
resort shoots one of them to provide 
his lady with bird’s wings for her hat. 

The Great Black-backed Gull 
feet in length, and is said to be a better 
3 said to occur in America, but is found 






















THE LIVING WORLD. 


416 

mostly, if not solely, in Europe, particularly in Norway and 
Shetland Islands. It is a frequenter of the marshes 



parts, and black on the upper body, the wings being white 
pink for its stockings and shoes. The 
third set of eggs is left for the bird’s 
share. 

The gulls , as well as the hyaenas, 
have their laughing species, the Larus 
atricilla , whose scream sounds like a 
derisive laugh. * 

The Herring Gull {Larus argen- 
tatus) is spotlessly white on the head 
and neck, gray on the body, except 
with jet-black, white-tipped wings. Its 
popular name has been derived from 
its success in the herring fishery. 

The Skua (. Lestris ) is a professional 
thief, who, passing his time in idleness, 
waits until a gull has captured a fish, when the skua , like a 
the smaller and defenceless congener. 


Sweden and the 
where i t always 
builds its nest 
like the eider- 
d u c k, and 
will at once 
lay again if 
its nest be 
robbed, and 
as it$ eggs 
are large and 
well flavored y 
the natives 
keep the bird 
fully occu¬ 
pied. On the 
Thames riv¬ 
er this bird 
goes by the 
name of the 
cob. It wears 
two suits of 
clothing a 
year—streak¬ 
ed gray for a 
winter color, 
and for sum¬ 
mer leaden- 
gray on the 
neck and 
throat, white 
on the under 
tipped; it prefers 



HERRING GULL. 


highwayman, robs 











THE LIVING WORLD. 


40 



The Wandering Albatross (Diomedea exulans ) is familiar alike to trav¬ 
eller and reader, but even Coleridge’s study of the weird, in his matchless 
“Ancient Mariner,” 
does not discuss the 
natural history of the 
bird, and from sailors 
one learns only the 
superstitions, which 
are “ as thick as leaves 
in Vallambrosa.” It 
is the largest of swim¬ 
ming birds, as it very 
frequently has twelve 
or fourteen-feet stretch 
of wing. Its white 
coloring has the ap¬ 
pearance of crested 
waves, and is broken 
only by the pink hue 
of its bill, the green 
orbit of the eye, the 
flesh-color tint of the 
legs, and the tracery 
of black on the edge of its wings, and on the shorter feathers of the back and 


ALBATROSS AND GOLDEN DIVERS. 



tail. As the sailor’s “home is on the ocean wave,” so that of the albatross 
is in mid-air, and its graceful flight is not affected by dead calm or the most 
27 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


418 

furious tempest. It is no uncommon feat for the great ocean steamers to sail 
at the rate of four or five hundred miles a day, and yet the albatross , without 

apparent exertion, will 
not only keep them com¬ 
pany, but will at least 
double the distance by 
the many and eccentric 
circlings in which it 
indulges. Whether the 
albatross sleeps on the 
wing, or taking its rest 
in the surface of the 
water makes up for de¬ 
lay by a yet more rapid 
flight, is a question not 
yet determined. 

The Stormy Petrels 
are so frequently men¬ 
tioned in accounts of 
sea-going travellers as to 
call for at least brief men¬ 
tion. They breed in the 
crevices of the rocks 
but build no nests. The 
young when hatched are 
left in the nursery dur¬ 
ing the day, and fed 
only on the return of 
the parents at night. The stormy petrels belong to several species, and we 
select as their repre¬ 
sentative the Fulmar 
{Procellarius glacialis ). 

In the Island of Saint 
Kilda, where its nests 
are numerous, it is 
preyed upon by the na¬ 
tives, who are fond alike 
of the eggs and of the 
young birds. The stormy 
petrel follows whalers 
and devotes itself to the 
enjoyment of such parts 
of the whale as are re¬ 
fuse to the fishermen. 

This bird is fully de¬ 
scribed in preceding 
pages of this work under 
the head of “ Singular Nest-Building Birds,” where considerable space is devoted 
to the many curious habits of this little creature. 
















THE LIVING WORLD. 


4 T 9 


BIRDS OF PREY. 



The Birds of Prey ( Accipitres ) naturally represent the next step upward, 
since for success in the realm assigned to them, in the division of the world’s 
dominion, they require a more complex organism, and a higher structure than 
the classes of birds heretofore described. As carnivorous creatures, they are 
provided with strong, hooked beaks, and their claws are adapted for clutching. 
The short, stout bill has a curved tip and knife-like edges, so that it forms 
the most perfect contrivance for tearing and cutting, while the muscular power 
of the jaws fits them for crunching the bones of animals. The upper jaw, 
like that of the parrot family, is furnished with a sheath (cere), which extends 
as far as the nostrils. The powerful feet are four-toed, and, except in the case 
of the owl and the fish hawk; are arranged three in front and one behind. The 
fact that the claws are less fully defined in such birds of prey as feed upon 

carrion and refuse, is another striking 
illustration of the wonderful provision 
in the animal kingdom for each crea¬ 
ture having no excuse for not worthily 
fulfilling the work it has to do. 

The Owl was sacred to Minerva, 
for if not possessed of the most remark¬ 
able wisdom, it has the appearance of 
profound sapience. 

The Hawk Owl. 
or Canada Owl 
(Surma ulala ), be¬ 
longs to the P o 1 a i 
fauna, and is notable 
because it can see by 
day as well as by night. 

The Snowy Owl 
(Nyctea nivea) is a 
mighty hunter and 
fisher, and flies wholly 
by day. It is specially 
fond of hares and lem- 
eared or horned owl (Bubo maximus). mings Its oran ge- 

colored eyes gleam like gems, and gain in lustre from their contrast with the 
spotless white of the rest of the body. Its habitat is in the North Polar regions 
of both continents. 

The Burrowing, or Coquimbo Owl (Speotyto cunicularia) , is a member of 
the queer triumvirate, which is composed of the prairie dog, the rattlesnake, 
and the owl. When the coquimbo has no prairie dog to do his mining, he 
makes his own burrow. This species is small of size, but has very long, stout 
legs and extremely muscular claws. 

The Boobook (Athene boobook) , or Australian Cuckoo Owl, though diurnal 
in its habits, passes the night in song, not unlike that of the cuckoo. 

The Winking Owl (. Athene connivens) belongs to Australia, and particu¬ 
larly attacks the bear or kaola, a small quadruped which it frequently makes 
its prey, though not without having to engage in a fierce battle. 



420 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



The Eared Owl (. Ephialtes scops ) is only about seven inches in length. It 
is quite common in Italy, but is migratory in its habits, passing its winters in 
Africa and Asia, and its summers in Europe. 

The Great Owl, or Eagle Owl {Bubo maximus ), has northern Europe for 
its habitat. It is extremely fierce, attacking the eagle and the wild dog without 
considering their formidableness, for which temerity it often forfeits its life. It 
is very beautiful in its plumage, is susceptible of domestication, and is trained 
to lure the pugnacious falcon into the hunter’s net. 

The Virginian Eared Owl, or Horned Owl {Bubo virginianus') , utters a 
cry so weird as to curdle the blood of the traveller. It is very destructive of 

game birds and displays great fond¬ 
ness for wild turkeys. Like the scops 
eared owl and the great owl , it be¬ 
longs to the horned family, wearing 
movable, feathered tufts or ears. 

The Brown Owl {Syrnium aluco) r 
though small, is very bold and strong,, 
and surpasses most species in its fond¬ 
ness for the flesh of young cats. The 
brown owl is perhaps better known as 
the barn owl. 

The Long-eared Owl {Asio amer- 
icanis) is small but rapacious and is 
found in many countries. It takes 
the nest of a squirrel or of a bird, 
and thus saves the trouble of 
building for itself. It is very fond of 
its young, and provides for them most 
bountifully. It is very common in 
America and alike varied and beautiful 
in its coloring. Despite its racial weak¬ 
ness for cat-flesh, a tame long-eared 
owl has been known to live on the 
most affectionate terms with pussy, 
forest owl ( Symium aiuco l screech owl ( Otus who always shared, with him her rats 

vulgaris ). and mice. The Veiled Owl, or Ameri¬ 

can Barn Owl {Strix flammed), is 
light colored and very easily tamed. One of them struck up a friendship for a 
linnet and used to allow the little bird to ride about seated on its back. 

The owl’s nocturnal habits and melancholy utterances have resulted in 
multiplying omens and superstitions associated with him. The French peasants 
are in the habit of nailing owls to trees or fences and letting them die by the 
slow torture of hunger. Henry Berthoud, in his “ Stories of Bird Life,” tells 
of rescuing one such unfortunate owl and taking it into his household, at Paris. 
The owl became quite fond of its master and always returned after having 
been allowed its liberty. Finally it disappeared but was some days afterwards 
found to have a family, which, together with the male, accepted into their friend¬ 
ship the owner of the mother. If, as sometimes happens, the owl gets abroad 
in daytime, crows, sparrows, and various small birds, which at night would 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


421 



“be the owl’s victims, attack and claw and peck at him, against which attacks 
he is utterly defenceless because unable to see. 

The Secretary Bird, or Serpent Falcon (Gypogeranus serpentarius), belongs 
to the fauna of South Africa. Its feats as a serpent-killer outdo the fabled 
Hercules, and its successful pursuit of snakes has made it a privileged character, 

protected even by the law. It gen¬ 
erally marches along with the most 
pronounced military dignity, but it 


of burrowing owe ( Strix cunicularia). 


BARN OWE AND NEST. 


has a curious habit of breaking irregularly into a run as if suddenly irri¬ 
tated or frightened. This bird is about three feet in length, and dark 
gray in color. Black feathers form a crest and suggested its name, from a 
fancied resemblance to a clerk with his pen behind his ear. It moves with 
the greatest rapidity so that it has been called the Devil's Horse. As a kickei 
it rivals the ostrich, and when it attacks a serpent it brings into action feet, 
wings and beak, but in his household female suffrage is recognized. The 
American species (Astur atricapillus ) is specially valuable when trained for 
hunting. 




422 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


The Sparrow Hawk ( Asturnisus ) is distinguished for the most reckless 
courage and pugnacity, which leads him to attack any bird without reference 
to size. When domesticated, it is affectionate towards its master, and a trustful 



SNOWY OWL. VEILED OWL. 



guardian of his fruit. It forms strange friendships, as for example, one formed 
an intimacy with a puppy, and the two strange companions became such fast 

friends that the effects of their sepa¬ 
ration was pitiful to see. At times 
the swallows and martens will band 
together and attack the sparrow hawk. 

The African Chanting Falcon 
{Metiera musicus) sings its matins 
and its vespers, and its notes are said 
to be very musical. 

The Corn Hawk (Circus cyaneus ) 
is singular among hawks because of 
the difference in coloration of male 
and female. Its habitat is the flat, 
open country, from the Isthmus of 
Panama to the Arctic regions. It 
is specially serviceable to the planter 
because it destroys the rats and mice 
in great numbers. 

The Windhover, or Kestril 
(.Falco tinunculus ), is a very beautiful 
European hawk which has the power 
of remaining poised in the air for a 
seemingly unlimited time. As will 
be seen from the illustration presented 
secretary bird. in The Living World, the markings 

are very beautiful, and the egg is also 
prettily spotted with brown. This bird was once used in falconry, for not only 
were different species trained for special kinds of game, but the distinctions of 
caste was confined to each class of falcons and hawks, and to certain social ranks, 
a distinction which was rigidly observed. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


423 


FALCONRY. 



The Bengal Falcon (. Falco ccernlescens ) is only a few inches long, but is 
most expert when trained to hunt the quail. Like all of its family it 
darts swiftly and directly at its quarry, and losing no time, strikes a second 
bird as soon as the first one has been disposed of. The Chicken Hawk, or 
Goshawk ( Astur palumbarius) , is trained to hunt hares, and being less fleet, is 
compelled to first stalk and then pounce upon them. The male is much 
weaker than the female. The training of the falcon was a long-continued and 
arduous labor and 
deserves mention 
in order to lend 
emphasis to the 
expensiveness of 
the pleasures of 
royalty and the 
nobility, who had 
to satisfy their 
profligate desires 
by some means of 
taxing subject and 
tenant. First the 
falcon was taught 
to perch without 
flapping its wings, 
lest when it be¬ 
came a hunter it 
should frighten 
the quarry. This 
lesson, was repeat¬ 
edly -inculcated by 
tying the wings, 
putting a leather 
band on the legs, 
and forcing it to 
occupy the perch 
as represented in 
the illustration. 

Then the perch, 
as will be seen, 
was made to cor¬ 
respond in gen¬ 
eral form to the 
human hand and 
wrist upon which 

the falcon was finally to perch. At times, as in the illustration, two falcons were put 
into training, so that when their education was finished they should be prepared to 
hunt in company. After the falcon had learned to perch properly it reviewed the 
lesson with the substitution of the human wrist for the wooden perch, the falconer 
protecting himself by a thick leather glove worn on the left hand and wrist, and 














424 THE LIVING WORLD. 

chaining the falcon to his arm. Next in order the falconer walks up and down 
with the falcon on his wrist that it may become accustomed to a moving perch. 


THE FIRST LESSON. 


FALCON SEIZING A HARE. 


While receiving its lessons in perching the falcon is hooded with a white 
leather mask, securely fastened about the neck, and having an opening simply 


SPARROW HAWK {Actipitor fttSUS). EAGLE HAWK PURSUING A HARE. 

for the beak. These steps having been taken satisfactorily, the instructions 
are repeated with the unhooded falcon . When the bird has learned its lesson it is 







THE LIVING WORLD. 


425 



■]s[ext the bird is trained to come at the call of its keeper—an obedience which 
the falcon yields very unwillingly, even with the promptings of pulls upon his 


required to begin all over again in the presence of numerous spectators, that it 
may learn not to be diverted by the presence and clamor of human beings. 



426 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



chain and of rewards in the form of some agreeable article of food. Gradually 
the distance between the falconer and the falcon is increased until at length it 
reaches the limit of the vocal powers of the master. Then a leather-covered 
wooden heron is used as the table from which the falcon must feed, so that it 
learns to associate good living with the back of a heron. Next the bird must 
learn to answer the call of its keeper, even though it has to leave its feast, after 
which the counterfeit presentment of a heron is bloodied so that the falcon may 

take another step in its educa¬ 
tional progress. Next live birds 
are substituted for the dummy 


WINDHOVER. 


gerfalcon. 


and all previous lessons reviewed, and when the result proves satisfactory 
the falcon is unchained and compelled to repeat his lessons until he 
learns his duties. When all this has been accomplished and the falcon 
has been converted into the companion of sportsmen, it is no longer a 
bird of prey, but when allowed to seek its quarry, kills and drops it, to 
be picked up by an equerry. Frederick II. was compelled by his falcons 
to raise the siege of Parma; for being unable, during the siege, to deny 
himself the pleasure of hunting, the Parmese took advantage of the temporary 
absence of the monarch and his nobility, and sallying forth defeated the leader- 









THE LIVING WORLD. 


427 


less soldiery. In France falconry culminated under King Francois I. (six¬ 
teenth centnr}^), but it continued to be cultivated until interrupted by the French 
Revolution and the wars of Napoleon. In 1861 the Empress Eugenie under¬ 
took, in company with Marshal Bazaine, the Prince of Maskwa and the Baron de 
Pierre, to revive the institution, but without any permanent results. A French 
account, belonging to the earlier half of the fourteenth century, relates how a 
falcon brought about a war between England and France. Robert von Artois 
having been batfished from France, sought the Court of England. While 
there he learned to hunt the 
heron, and resolved to stir up 
King Edward to the assertion 




falcon Training. 


the osprey, or fish hawk ( Aslur palumboris). 


of England’s rights in, France. Courtier-like, he had a heron served for 
the royal table, and when it appeared, dilated upon the heron’s perfect 
symbolism of men who, afraid of their own shadow, failed to assert their 
rights. The monarch made the application and swore by the heron no longer 
to be diverted from an attack upon’ France. Robert von Artois next took a 
solemn vow that he would never return unless victory perched upon Edward’s 
banner. The Earl of Salisbury, catching the infection, swore that he and 
his would follow and support the king. Then the lady-love of Salisbury, put¬ 
ting her finger upon his eye, prayed that if false to his oath his eye might 













428 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



always remain closed and senseless. Finally the enthusiasm spread to the whole 
court, and resulted in a French crusade, which nearly proved successful. Nor 
was this all, for the fact that the English nobility hunted on French soil proved 
a stronger motive than loyalty to the French nobility, and induced them to 
lend support to their king, which would have been rendered to no weaker 
appeal than that of their passion for hunting with the falcon. 

Falconing was cultivated as early as the fourth century, and continued in 
Germany till the end of the eighteenth century, while it is* still in repute in 
Persia. Great sums were lavished upon falconries, and the chief falconer ranked 
fourth from the king. Francis I. of France expended forty thousand florins 


CHICKEN HAWK {Aslua palumbarius). speckeed buz- kingey miean (Milvus regalis). wandering faecon 
zard (Buteo lagopus\. {Falco peregrinus). 

a year, paying his chief falconer a salary of four thousand florins and giving 
him as assistants fifty gentlemen and fifty falconers. Noblemen and their 
stately dames devoted much time to hunting with falcons , and even when not 
caring to engage in the sport still kept their falcons by them as a symbol 
of wealth and station. Just as with archery, the terms of falconry formed a 
vocabulary by themselves, and the historians of the times are filled with allu¬ 
sions to the sport. 

Falconry is cultivated ardently by Cossack and Kalmuck, who have inherited 
love for the sport even though they disregard many of the more stately cere¬ 
monies of the nobles who provoked from Froissart his high-wrought descrip¬ 
tions of “The Field of the Cloth of Gold.” 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


429 


The Falcon ( Falco ) has long been celebrated, and always appears in tale's 
of mediaeval knights and their demoiselles. Its beak is thick, stout, curved and 



FALCON STRIKING A BITTERN. 


supplied with a single tooth, which fits into an empty socket in the lower jaw;, 
its claws are sharply curved and pointed. 












430 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



The Gerfalcon (Falco gerfalco ) is a native of Greenland, and the very em¬ 
bodiment of courage and fearless activity. In its wild state it hunts hares 
and rabbits, so that the education which it undergoes when trained is due rather 
to its wilfuluess than to its ignorance. As a rule its plumage is white. 

The Wandering or Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus ) is the species 
trained to assist the hunter, for its disposition, without being sweet, is more 
amiable than that of other falcons. The male being a third smaller in size is 
frequently called the tercel. In speaking of the antelope and gazelle mention 
will be made of the use of the falcon. 

The Kingly Milan (.Milvns regains) is frequently trained like the falcon. 
At one time a number of them had their feet frozen to the boughs upon 

which they had 
perched, and fell 
victims to the peas¬ 
ants. Accidents of 
this kind may over¬ 
take even an ani¬ 
mal, as in the case 
of the eagle which, 
stepping on an ice¬ 
berg to take its meal 
of fish, was com¬ 
pelled to remain a 
prisoner until it 
perished from star¬ 
vation. 

The Kite (Mil- 
vus Ictinus) is a very 
familiar sight in all 
parts of Europe, but 
has not, as yet, be¬ 
come naturalized in 
America. Its name 
is so often used by 
British writers that 
a few words of de¬ 
scription will, doubt¬ 
less, prove service¬ 
able. Its body is 
about two feet and 
goshawk and nest {Astur pctiumbaris). ' a quarter in length, 

but its wings ex¬ 
pand more than five feet. Its coloring is reddish-brown, streaked with 
deep black; its tail is distinctly barred in brown, and forked at the extremit}^. 
It is rapidly becoming extinct, but has impressed itself upon the literature of 
Great Britain, and become familiar to every child through the Chinese kites. 

The Swallow-tailed Kite [Elanoides forficatus) is a native of America, 
where its beautiful black and white plumage, and swallow-tailed coat arrest 
attention. It is insectivorous, and exhibits the most remarkable grace and 















THE LIVING WORLD. 


43 i 





swiftness when in pursuit of its prey. The reader, by pausing to reflect upon 
the difference of wing equipment among the birds already mentioned, will see 
yet another evidence of design. 

The Mississippi Kite ( Ictinia mississippiensi ) cultivates the most inexpli¬ 
cable companionship 
with the turkey buz¬ 
zard, from which it is 
distinguished by ap¬ 
pearance, flight and 
strictly insect diet. 

The Little Amer¬ 
ican Eagle, or Red- 
throated Falcon 
{/byeter americanus ), 
adds to the many at¬ 
tractions of the South 
American forests. 

Blue above and pink¬ 
ish below, a red-pur¬ 
ple for the throat, 
black for the claws, 
and yellow for the 
feet and for the bill- 
sheath, a diversity of 
plumage in beautiful 
combination is such 
as is seen in no other 
birds of prey. 

The Buzzard 
(Buteo vulgaris) is 
one of the handsomest 
among the falcons. 

The reader must not confound this bird with what is called the turkey buzzard, 
for the latter, as will be explained, is not truly a buzzard, but a vulture. It 
is black or dark brown above, and white below, though spots and streakings 
add to the richness of its plumage. 

The Honey Buzzard ( Perm's apivora) is notable chiefly because it varies 

its me?iu by the addition 
of insects, and of the 
plundered hives of bees. 

The Osprey, or Fish 
Hawk {Pandion halicetus ), 
is always graceful,whether 
circling in the air, or dash¬ 
ing into the water in 
claws of the eagle. skull of an eagle. pursu it of the finny tribe. 

Its claws are long, sharp and curvilinear, and, to complete the perfection of the 
mechanism, the soles of the feet are roughened, and the outer toe has a flexi¬ 
bility of the human thumb, affording another evidence of adaptation to the 
demands of nature and the wisdom of the Deity. 


falcon, with and without hood. 




432 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



The Sea Eagle (. Halicztus albicilla ) is European in its habitat, and although: 
a fisherman by calling, is very fond of fawns, hares, sheep and poultry, and has 
been known to devour the hedge-hog. The Bald-headed Eagle, or the White- 
headed Eagle (. Halicztus leucocephaLus) , is a well-known symbol to every Ameri¬ 
can. Its head is not at all bald, but as its white is in such sharp contrast 
with the chocolate-color of the rest of the body, the first impression is that the 
feathers stop before they reach the head. Franklin objected to the selection of 
the bald-headed eagle as the American symbol, for he dwelt only upon its habit 
of robbing the fish hawks, but those who overruled his opinion thought rather 

of the magnifi¬ 
cent strength, 
and aspiring 
flight of this 
monarch among 
the birds, whose 
form, flight, 
strength and 
exulting cry all 
make him re¬ 
markable in the 
animal world. 

Wilson, in 
his American 
Ornithology, 
gives the fol¬ 
lowing spirited 
description of 
the bald or 
white-head ed 
eagle: 

“ The cele¬ 
brated cataract 
of Niagara is 
a noted place 
of resort for 
those birds, as 

NORTH AMERICAN BALD EAGLE ( HalicztuS leucocephdlus). well on account 

of the fish pro¬ 
cured there, as for the numerous carcases of squirrels, deer, bears, and various 
other animals, that in their attempts to cross the river above the falls have 
been dragged into the current and precipitated down that tremendous gulf, 
where, among the rocks that bound the rapids below, they furnish a rich 
repast for the vulture, the raven, and the bald eagle , the subject of the present 
account. 

“This bird has been long known to naturalists, being common to both conti¬ 
nents, and occasionally met with from a very high northern latitude to the 
borders of the torrid zone, but chiefly in the vicinity of the sea, and along the 
shores and cliffs of our lakes and large rivers. Formed by nature for braving 
the severest cold; feeding equally on the produce of the sea and of the land; 






THE LIVING WORLD. 


433 


possessing powers of flight capable of outstripping even the tempests themselves; 
unawed by anything but man; and from the ethereal heights to which he soars, 
looking abroad, at one glance, on an immeasurable expanse of forests, fields, lakes 
and oceans deep below him, he appears indifferent to the little localities of change 
of seasons, as, in a few minutes, he can pass from summer to winter, from the 
lower to the higher 
regions of the atmo¬ 
sphere, the abode of 
eternal cold, and from 
thence descend at will 
to the torrid or the 
arctic regions of the 
earth. He is there¬ 
fore found at all sea¬ 
sons in the countries 
he inhabits, but pre¬ 
fers all such places 
as have been men¬ 
tioned above, from 
the great partiality 
he has for fish. In 
procuring these, he 
displays, in a very 
singular manner, the 
genius and energy 
of his character, 
which is fierce, con¬ 
templative, daring 
and tyrannical; at¬ 
tributes not exerted 
but on particular oc¬ 
casions p but when 
put forth, overpow¬ 
ering all opposition. 

Elevated on the high 
dead limb of some 
gigantic tree that 
commands a wide 
view of the neigh¬ 
boring shore and 
ocean, he seems calm¬ 
ly to contemplate eagle oe the alps carrying oee marie delax. 

the motions of the 

various feathered tribes that pursue their busy avocations below; the 
snow-white gulls slowly winnowing the air; the busy trifigce (sand-pipers) 
coursing along the sands; trains of ducks streaming over the surface; silent 
and watchful cranes, intent and wading; clamorous crows, and all the 
winged multitudes that subsist by the bounty of this vast liquid magazine 
of nature. High over all these hovers one whose action instantly 
28 







434 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



arrests all his attention. By his wide curvature of wing, and sudden suspen¬ 
sion in the air, he knows him to be the fish haw r k (Pandion halicetus ,) 
settling over some devoted victim of the deep. His eye kindles at the sight, 
and balancing himself, with half-opened wings, on the branch, he watches the 
result. Down, rapid as an arrow from heaven, descends the distant object of 

his attention, the' roar of 
its wings reaching the ear 
as it disappears in the deep, 
making the surge foam 
around. At this moment 
the eager looks of the eagle 
are all ardor, and level¬ 
ling his neck for flight, 
he sees the fish hawL once 
more emerge, struggling 
with his prey, and mount¬ 
ing in the air with screams 
of exultation. These are 
the signal for our hero, 
w T ho, launching into the air, 
instantly gives chase, and 
soon gains on the fish hawk; 
each exerts his utmost 
to mount above the other, 
displaying in the rencon¬ 
tre the most elegant and 
sublime aerial evolutions. 
The unincumbered eagle 
rapidly advances, and is just 
on the point of reaching 
his opponent, when with a 
sudden scream, probably of 
despair and honest execra¬ 
tion, the latter drops his 
fish ; the eagle, poising him¬ 
self for a moment as if to 
take a more certain aim, 
descends like a whirlwind, 
snatches it in his grasp 
ere it reaches the water, and 
bears his ill-gotten booty 
silently aw^ay to the w^oods. 
“ These predatory attacks 
A fight with AN eagle. and defensive manoeuvres 

of the eagle and fish-hawL 
are matters of daily observation along the whole of our sea-board, from Georgia 
to New England, and frequently excite great interest in the spectators^ Sym¬ 
pathy, however, on this as on most other occasions, generally sides with the 
honest and laborious sufferer, in opposition to the attacks of powder, injustice 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


435 



and rapacity, qualities for which our hero is so generally notorious, and which, 
in his superior, man, are equally detestable. As for the feelings of the poor 
fish, they seem altogether out oi the question.” 

There is a well authenticated story of an eagle of this species having 
descended upon a moun¬ 
taineer’s home on the 
Alps and carrying away 
a girl six years of age 
in its cruel talons. This 
event is said to have oc¬ 
curred in 1838, and that 
though a rescuing party 
went promptly to the aid 
of the victim she was not 
recovered until life had 
become extinct from 
wounds received in her 
breast. Some time in the 
year 1886 a similar inci¬ 
dent occurred in Minne¬ 
sota, where a child of 
four years was carried 
away by an eagle, but in 
this case the little one 
was rescued before it re¬ 
ceived fatal inj uries. 

Many stories of a like 
character, illustrative of 
the eagle’s power and 
courage, are related, es¬ 
pecially of the bald eagle 
of the Alps. A few years 
ago we read an account of 
one of these monster birds 
having swooped down 
upon a shepherd’s house 
and seized upon a boy 
nearly twelve years of 
age who was playing in 
the yard before his door. 

In this case the eagle 
was unable to rise with 
so great a weight but re¬ 
fused to quit its hold until 
the child’s screams ea.gi.es of Switzerland. 

brought his fatherto the 

rescue, who succeeded in killing the eagle with a club that was fortunately at hand. 

The Golden Eagle (Aquzla chrysatos ) is a true cosmopolitan, and has his 
habitat everywhere. Unlike the vultures, it prefers living prey to a carcase, 








436 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



and will successfully attack animals as large as the kangaroo. It is free from 
the distinctive weakness of the vulture tribe, as it never disgorges. Its head 
and neck are of red and gold, the legs and tail grayish brown or brownish gray. 
The Brazilian Eagle (Morphus unibitinga) feeds mostly upon reptiles. 

It is strictly mono¬ 
gamous, but in case 
of accident, never 
continues to be a 
widow or widower. 
Its strength is enor¬ 
mous, for even when 
heavy from overfeed¬ 
ing, it cannot be held 
by the arms of a man, 
and is notable for its 
diminutive size,which 
is not greater than 
that of a crow. The 
female eagle is much 
the larger and strong¬ 
er of the pair, and 
is fully able to man¬ 
age her helpmeet. 

The Crested 
Eagle, or Harpy 
Eagle (Th rasas tus 
harpyia ), is a terror 
to the sloth, the deer, 
and the opossum. It 
is the most muscu¬ 
lar of the eagle 
family, and though 
less notable in power 
of flight, is remarka¬ 
ble for its ability to 
secure prey. It wears 
on its head a fan¬ 
shaped crest, which 
it erects when aroused 
from its lethargy. 
It is met with as far 
north as Texas. 

The solitary habits 
of the eagle, and its 
limited fecundity 
beyond the needs which 


golden eagle (Aquila chryscstos). 


seem to be a provision against any multiplication 
they serve in the economy of nature. 

The Eagle of the Steppes (.Aquila bifasciata ) is found throughout Tartary, 
and frequently fastens upon and destroys the antelope. The Abbe Hoe, like 








THE LIVING WORLD. 


437 




Bruce in southern Africa, lost a kid which was - being boiled for supper, by an 
eagle which swooped down upon it and carried it safely away. 

The eagle was the emblem 
of “all-seeing Jove” and no 
member of the animal world 
could so fitly symbolize a keen¬ 
ness of sight which allowed 
nothing to escape it. Again, 
the high altitudes at which 
the eagle flies, and the easy 
sweep of his magnificent wings, 
together with the suddenness 
with which he appears in the 
lower realm of earth, all unite 
to increase the excellence of 
the symbolism. The Roman 
armies bore insignia in which 
the eagle had great part, for 
he typified mastery, fearless 
courage, resistless might, seem¬ 
ing omnipresence. So, too, when 
Jove would please himself with 
the possession of the beautiful 
boy Ganymede, he employed the 
eagle as his minister; and poet and artist have made familiar to us the soaring 
eagle and the surprised but fearless child sailing away into the blue empyrean. 

As has been said the eagle has 
more than once been known 
to seize and bear away not 
merely infants, but children as 
large as the one in our illus¬ 
tration, for whose rescue the 
maddened father is represented 
struggling so valiantly. 

The Black Vulture, or 
Carrion Crow (Catharista 
atrata ), is notable for its de¬ 
struction of the eggs of the 
alligator. Its sight is keen, and 
its appetite insatiable, but still 
in accordance with the won¬ 
derful laws prescribed for the 
natural world, it does not ren¬ 
der extinct the alligator species, 
but simply prevents it from 
i. cathartes urubu. 2. king of the vui/iuREs. multiplying too rapidly and 

thus occupying the earth. 

The King Vulture, or White Crow (Sarcorhampus papa), is specially 
beautiful in its coloration. Cream white is the prevailing tint, but the lemon 



43^ 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


color of the throat and back of neck change into scarlet on the sides of the neck 
and on the crown of the head. The bill is orange and black with an orange 
colored cere . In his presence other vultures are submissive and will never 

attack a carcase until 
the king vulture has 
claimed his regal pre¬ 
cedence. 

The South Ameri¬ 
can Condor (, Sarcor - 
hamphus gryphus) is 
the type of the vulture 
family. It is about 
the same size as the 
bearded vulture, but 
has the extraordinary 
wing expanse of ten 
feet, while its 
strength is surprising¬ 
ly great in proportion. 
Its general color is a 
gray-black though the 
markings are not al¬ 
ways the same. Its 
head and neck (as if 
to insure greater ease 
and neatness in its 
work as a scavenger) 
are destitute of feath¬ 
ers ; the wings grow 
white towards the ends, 
and around the neck 
is a beautiful, white, 
fluffy ruff. The male 
is crested, and as the 
condor when at rest 
conceals its beak in 
its ruff, it then pre¬ 
sents the semblance 
of a curious freak of 
nature. Its vision is 
even more remarkable 
than that of the tele¬ 
scopic eyes of its con¬ 
geners, and while itself 
at an altitude so great 
as to render it invisi¬ 
ble to man, will espy its quarry and steal into its presence like a phantom. 
All accounts of travel in South America, Africa and Asia, are full of the con¬ 
stant, sudden and mysterious appearance of vultures when game has been shot. 



GREAT VULTURE OF THE ANDES ( Vultur gryphus). 



























THE LIVING WORLD. 


439 



VULTURES. 


The condor ordinarily contents himself with carrion, but at times it will attack the 
antelope or even the puma; it will sometimes join forces with a mate and successfully 
attack cattle. Its two-feet-aud-a-quarter body hardly lead one to expect the enormous 
muscular strength which it exhibits, and its tenacity of life renders it substantially 
invulnerable to the ordinary bullet. The condor is a glutton, and this leads to 
his easy capture by the natives, who, baiting with a carcase, wait until the 
condors have gorged themselves and then easily lasso them. The natives despise 
[the condor as they do a poisonous snake, or as the average man does a Nor¬ 
way rat. Hence, after capturing the creature, they spare no torments which 
their ingenuity can devise, so that the condor may be regarded as the frequent 
victim of a modern inquisition. 

Some naturalists believe that 
the condor is directed by scent, 
instead of by sight, but this be¬ 
lief is hardly as well supported 
by investigation as is the other. 

It is stated that four condors 
dragged the carcase of a grizzly 
bear several hundred yards al¬ 
though it weighed over a hun¬ 
dred pounds. The condor 


EGYPTIAN VULTURE. i. bearded vulture (Gypatos). 2 . sociable vulture. 3 . cathartes perenoptbrus. 

and his tribe exhibit considerable ingenuity in conducting their feasts. It 
does not find palatable or nutritious the leathery skin, hairy covering, and 
bony skeleton of its prey, and therefore with a skill which a taxidermist 
would envy, opens the stomach and entering into the cave of flesh eats 
away everything but the bone and the integument. It is said by travellers to 
be a common experience to find the effigies of various animals of which nothing 
continues but the outward semblance and .an empty name In the desert the 
conditions are favorable for a long-continued preservation of these empty body- 
cases, so that the multitude of lifeless forms have all the appearance of a great 
natural museum whose taxidermist possessed the most peifect skill. 







440 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



The condor would seem to establish the fact that in spite of its seeming 
provision for quickness of scent, it resembles the greyhound in hunting by 
sight. Repeated experiments have been made by offering the condor favorite 
articles of food concealed merely by a paper wrapping, and it uniformly hap¬ 
pened that he remained wholly indifferent, while if his eye was allowed to fall 
upon food otherwise wrapped up, he would at once tear to pieces the wrappings 
and feast upon the bonue-boucke which these concealed. Sixteen thousand feet 
above the earth is no uncommon altitude for the condor , who seems to believe 
in pure air and free exercise, even though his natural instincts make him fond 
of the most “ gamey ” food, and lead him always to gorge, even though, like 
Launcelot Gobbo, he does not “ rend 
apparel out.” 

The Bearded Vulture, Socia¬ 
ble Vulture, or Lammergeyer 

(Gypcztusbarbatus) , is supreme on 
the Alps,' the Pyrenees, and the 
Indian Himalayas. It is magnifi¬ 
cent in size, and terrible in appear¬ 
ance, but ordinarily 
is harmless and sub¬ 
sists upon carrion. 

If, however, it be 
pushed by hunger, it 
will successfully at¬ 
tack lambs, hares, 
mountain goats, and 
chamois; when still 
more desperate it will 
carry off small chil¬ 
dren, and in extreme 
cases has been known 
to enter into contests 
with the mountain 
hunters. Its method 
of capturing _ the condor. 

goat and chamois is 

ingenious, for it will suddenly rush upon them and push them over the 
brink of the precipice. It has learned how to enjoy even the tortoise, for 
having seized one in its talons it will fly to a great height and break 
the shell by dashing it down upon the rocks. In flying around the 
cliffs the bearded vulture keeps at a uniform level and within the shadow. 
It builds its nest high up on the cliff and, like the more destructive 
birds, lays but a single egg, so that by the accidental destruction of the eggs, 
and by the usual infant mortality there is an equivalent for what has been 
called the Malthusian doctrine. An African traveller tells of the loss of part 
of his dinner by the open and fearless appropriation of it by a bearded vulture 
which manifested the greatest contempt for the attempted protests of the ser¬ 
vants. It has given rise to many a thrilling adventure, and is supposed by 
many to have been the Roc which carried Sinbad, the sailor, to the Valley of 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



Diamonds. The illustrations in The Diving World admirably represent the 
several species in life-like attitudes, and the manner of taking their prey The 
coloring of this bird is found as a distinction of the male. The under parts are 
yellow, the back, wings and tail black with white shaftings, the forepart of the head 
cream-colored, and the sides of the head black. It wears a long black, bristly 
chin-beard, and the orange ins is surrounded by a blood-red coat. Its claws repre¬ 
sent the weaker variety belonging to the scavenger family, and hence the 
greater necessity for 
the ruses by which 
the bearded vulture 
converts a living ani¬ 
mal into a defenceless 
carcase. • 

The Egyptian 

Vulture (Neophron 
perenopterus ) is found 
also in Europe and 
Asia. It frequently 
appears in Egyptian 
symbolism and is 
called Pharaoh's chick¬ 
en. Its usefulness as 
a scavenger assures it 
protection, although it 
quite frequently dese¬ 
crates the graveyards. 

The Arabian 
Vulture {Vulturmona- 
chus ) is not, as its name 
might suggest, confined 
to Arabia, but is com¬ 
mon throughout 
Europe, Asia and Af¬ 
rica. Parts of its neck 
and head are blue, 
though its prevailing 
tint is chocolate. It 
has the unique orna¬ 
ment of a tuft spring¬ 
ing from the point 
where the wing joins 

the body. i 

Everything connected with the land of the Pharoalis has a strange fasci¬ 
nation for many persons, and hence this bird has been made the theme of 
many animated descriptions. It is protected alike by law and -superstition, 
and therefore walks the streets of Egyptian cities as though they had been 
made for its convenience. In a country where the heat is so great, and clean 
linens so rare, the services of the Egyptian vulture are inestimable. 

The Turkey Buzzard ( Cathartes aura) is a common sight in the West and 


bearded vulture ( Gypcztos barbatus). monk’s-gown vulture 
(Vultur monac/; us). 




442 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


South. Its serviceableness is incalculable for the carrion it devours, but its 
repulsive appearance and foetid odor make it especially repulsive. 

THE OSTRICH FAMILY. 



In the introductory remarks describing the general characteristics of birds, 
I endeavored to briefly explain the analogies that seem to exist between reptiles 

and birds, which serve 
to connect the tw r o spe¬ 
cies by a well-defined 
link. In this closing 
department of birds I 
will therefore introduce 
The Ostrich Family 
which supply a link 
that binds together birds 
and mammals. With 
the explanations given 
we find incontestable 
proofs of the universal 
chain that binds all na¬ 
ture in a well connected 
whole, and the beautiful 
harmony that exists in 
all the orders of creation, 
exhibiting a gradual de¬ 
velopment that excites 
our admiration no less 
than our reverence for 
the Master-hand of 
such wise and beneficent 
bestowal, who d o e t h 
all things so generously 
and with such marvel¬ 
lous perfection. 

The most conspicu¬ 
ous differences that 
serve to distinguish 
birds from mammals 
may be briefly stated 
as follows, viz.: the for¬ 
mer have two legs and 
are covered with feathers, while the latter have four legs and are provided with 
a covering of fur. Some quadrupeds, however, are destitute of fur, being 
supplied instead with bristles, like the hedge-hog, or quills like the porcupine, 
or a scaly armor, like the armadillos, etc. Again, there are mammals that have 
no legs, the cetaceans for example, and others that have only rudimentary legs, 
or flippers, sugh as the phoca , or seal family. Hence, we find that the differ¬ 
ences between mammals and quadrupeds is no less marked than is the dis¬ 
tinction between birds and mammals. 


alpine condors (Sarcorhamphus gryphus). 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


443 


But if we pursue our investigations with critical care we will be sure to 
discover a striking analogy subsisting between birds and mammals, though 
this connection is confined to a single family numbering a half dozen species; 
the most prominent characteristics we will now proceed to briefly note. 

The ostrich is a descendant of a gigantic bird that once had its home in 
Australia and New Zealand. It is very properly known as the Dinornis, 
meaning terrible bird , because in life it stood no less than eighteen feet in 
height, and possessed of proportionate strength, though the skull indicates that 
it was a stupid bird and less fleet of foot than the ostrich. There were several 
species c r this monster bird, all of which are now extinct, though it is probable 
that its disappearance occurred some time during the present century. Allied to the 
dinornis was the Apteryx, or Wingless Bird, which was supposed to be extinct, 
but is now known to exist in the swamp regions of Australia. Like the 



GREAT APTERYX OP AUSTRALIA RESTORED. SKELETON OF DINORNIS. 


dinornis , it is destitute of wings, being provided with simple rudimentary 
appendages which are useless even to increase its speed when running. The 
largest species, which measured some three feet in height, is no longer met with 
and is supposed to have entirely disappeared. Though both the dinornis and 
apteryx are classed among the struthious ( ostrich kind) birds, their appearance 
and habits were very different. The former was very ostrich like, having long 
legs and neck, and short bill. Its toes were made for scratching, and its food 
was vegetable, such as grain and grasses. The apteryx , on the other hand, is a 
short, thick bird, with rather short legs and medium neck, but the bill is very 
long and snipe-like, and is used for boring into the ground for worms and small 
mollusks, which compose its diet. When sleeping, the bill rests upon the 
ground to balance the bird, so that it stands upon a tripod, composed of the 





444 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


bill and two legs. The two are common, however, in respect to their plumage 
which is more like hair than like feathers. The skin of the apteryx is also 
very similar to that of a mammal, and is used by the natives for making 
dresses, for which purpose it is very highly valued. The dinornis differed 
from the ostrich in having four toes, like those peculiar to gallinaceous birds, 
in being covered with filamentary feathers, if a license for such an expression 
is allowable. The plumage, however, certainly resembled hair more than it did 
feathers, but the internal organism of the ostrich is identical with that of the 
dinornis and apteryx. Concerning these two wingless birds a writer in the 
American Cyclopcedia observes : “ The occurrence of these gigantic birds in New 
Zealand adds much to the evidence that similar apterous and low-organized 
reptilian birds existed in America during the red sandstone epoch (the age of 
reptiles) when the cold-blooded and slow-breathing ovifera (egg bearing) exhibited 
such various forms and so great a number of species.” 

The ostrich has been likened to a camel, though the resemblance is certainly 
not pronounced, if we except the one single characteristic of a common omnivorous 
appetite and marvellous digestive powers. The plumage is hair-like and 
coarse, save the wing-feathers which compose the ostrich-plumes of com¬ 
merce. The creature is entirely bare on the sides and thighs, leaving the dun- 
colored and sometimes livid flesh-colored skin exposed, which is 
wrinkled, and resembles the meshes of a net. The legs are covered 
with large scales, as are the feet, which are cloven to form two toe? 
of unequal length, the inside one being the longer. The neck is 
long and swan-like, covered with short, white hairs, and the head is 
comparatively bare, being surmounted with tufts of white bristles. At 
the joint of each wing, there is a spur or sharp quill, an inch in 
length, and of a horny substance. The eyes are pro¬ 
vided with lids and lashes like those of a man, in which 
respect it has a mammalian characteristic. The internal 
parts of this animal are formed with no less surprising 
foot of the ostrich. peculiarity. At the top of the breast, under the skin, 
the fat is two inches thick, and on the fore part of the 
belly it is as hard as suet, and about two inches and a half thick 
in some places. It has two distinct stomachs. The first, which is 
lowermost, in its natural situation, somewhat resembles the crop in other 
birds; but it is considerably larger than the other stomach, and is fur¬ 
nished with strong muscular fibres, as well circular as longitudinal. The 
second stomach, or gizzard, has outwardly the shape of the stomach of a man; 
and upon opening is always found filled with a variety of discordant substances: 
hay, grass, barley, beans, bones and stones, some of which exceed in size a 
pullet’s egg. The kidneys. are eight inches long, and two broad, and differ 
from those of other birds in not being divided into lobes. The heart and 
lungs are separated by a midriff, as in quadrupeds, and the parts of generation 
also bear a very strong resemblance to those of the mammals. 

The voracity of the ostrich has become proverbial, nor can any statement, 
it would. seem, exaggerate the fact. It will swallow indiscriminately glass, 
stones, pieces of metal, or any other substance. This habit is, no doubt, 
prompted largely by necessity, since we know that all birds swallow pebbles, 
which serve the double purpose of keeping the coats of the gizzard apart, 
and to assist the process of grinding up the natural food. 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


445 



The ostrich is gregarious, associating together at times in flocks of a hun¬ 
dred or more, though they are frequently seen in pairs or even solitary. Their 
food is chiefly vegetable, to obtain which they travel great distances, which they 
easily accomplish, since no other creature is so swiff of foot. When running 
they raise their rudi¬ 
mentary wings to a 
right angle with the 
bod}’- and by vigorously 
flapping, fairly sail over 
the burning sands. The 
laying season is early 
in July in northern Af¬ 
rica and towards the 
last of December in the 
south. The eggs are 
about five inches in 
diameter and weigh 
nearly fifteen pounds, 
being provided with a 
shell of great strength, 
to serve as a protec¬ 
tion against the ani¬ 
mals that would devour 
them if they were cov¬ 
ered less securely. But 
even strong as is the 
shell-covering, hyenas 
and jackals contrive 
to break them, though 
by what means natural¬ 
ists have not yet been 
able to determine. The 
ostrich , while a timid 
creature generally, is 
most courageous during 
the nesting period, as 
well as a dangerous 
combatant. To its 
powers of defence is 
added a voice that may 
well inspire awe, espe¬ 
cially if raised during 

the stillness of night, AFRICAN ostrich ( Struthio camelus'-. 

as it frequently does at 

the breeding season. The cry is so nearly like that of the lion that persons most 
familiar with the king of beasts are readily deceived, and all animals within hear¬ 
ing distance retreat with precipitation in the full belief that it is a lion abroad. 

The male ostrich (upon the authority of Thomas Pringle), at the time oP 
breeding, usually associates to himself from two to six females. The hens lay 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


446 



all their eggs together in one nest; the nest being merely a shallow cavity 
scraped in the ground, of such dimensions as to be conveniently covered by one 
of these gigantic birds in incubation. A most ingenious device is employed to 
save space, and give at the same time to all the eggs their due share of warmth. 
The eggs are made to stand each with the narrow end on the bottom of the 
nest and the broad end upward ; and the earth which has been scraped out to 
form the cavity is employed to confine the outer circle, and keep the whole in 
the proper position. The hens relieve each other in the office of incubation during 
the day, and the male takes his turn at night, when his superior strength is 
required to protect the eggs or the new-fledged young from the jackals, tiger- 
cats and other enemies. Some of these animals, it is said, are not unfrequently 
found lying dead near the nest, destroyed by a stroke from the foot of this 
powerful bird. 

As many as sixty 
eggs are sometimes 
found in and around 
an ostrich's nest; but 
a smaller number is 
more common, and 
incubation is occa¬ 
sionally performed by 
a single pair of 
ostriches. Each fe¬ 
male lays from twelve 
to sixteen eggs. 
They continue to lay 
during incubation, 
and even after the 
young brood are 
hatched; the super¬ 
numerary eggs are 
not placed in the nest, 
but around it, being 
designed to assist in 
the nourishment of 
the young birds, which, though as large as a pullet when first hatched, are prob¬ 
ably unable at once to digest the hard and acrid food on which the old ones 
subsist. The period of incubation is from thirty-six to forty days. In the 
middle of the day the nest is occasionally left by all the birds, the heat of 
the sun being then sufficient to keep the eggs at the proper temperature. 

The ostrich of South Africa is a prudent and wary animal, and displays little 
of that stupidity ascribed to this bird by some naturalists. On the borders of Cape 
Colony, at least, where it is eagerly pursued for the sake of its valuable plumage, 
the ostrich displays . no want of sagacity in providing for its own safety or the 
security of its offspring. It adopts every possible precaution to conceal the place 
of its nest, and uniformly abandons it, after destroying the eggs, if it perceives 
that the eggs have been disturbed or the footsteps of man are discovered near it. 
In relieving each other in hatching, the birds are said to be careful not to be 
seen together at the nest, and are never observed to approach it in a direct line. 


OSTRICH RUNNING. 





THE LIVING WORLD. 


447 

The food of the ostrich consists of the tops of the various shrubby plants 
which even the most arid parts of South Africa produce in abundance. This 
bird is so easily satisfied in regard to water that he is constantly to be found in 
the most parched and desolate tracts which even the antelopes and the beasts 
of prey have deserted. 

When not hatching they are frequently seen in troops of thirty or forty 
together, or amicably associated with herds of zebras or quaggas, their fellow- 
tenants of the wilderness. If caught young the ostrich is easily tamed; but 
it does not appear that any attempt has been made to apply his great strength 
and swiftness to any purpose of practical utility. 

The ostrich is valued not only for the incomparable plumage of its wings, 
but also for its flesh, especially the 
young, which are said to be most 
palatable. In the time of Rome’s 
grandeur the ostrich was highly es¬ 
teemed as a rarely rich dish. Apicius 
has left us a recipe for making sauce 
for the bird, and Heliogabalus is 
distinguished in history for having 
dressed the brains of six hundred 
ostriches in one dish. Among all 
people now the eggs are greatly 
prized though too expensive a luxury 
to be often indulged in, notwithstand¬ 
ing the fact that one egg would 
suffice to satisfy fhe hunger of a 
dozen men. 

There are several ways of hunt¬ 
ing the ostrich , but the two most 
popular with the Hottentots is by 
riding the bird down, and by stalk¬ 
ing it, the hunter being covered with 
an ostrich's skin and passing a stick 
up through the neck with a handle at 
the lower end, by which he is able 
to counterfeit every motion of the 
bird. 

Although as before stated the ostrich is the swiftest runner of all creatures, 
he is stupid, which weakness is taken advantage of, as will be seen. When 

the mounted hunter discovers an ostrich he sets out after his quarry in a slow 

gallop, so as not to give any unnecessary alarm. The bird does not take 
immediately to flight but canters off apparently conscious of his ability to 
distance pursuit. As the hunter draws gradually nearer, the ostrich 

increases its speed, but instead of running directly away from the enemy it 

moves in a zig-zag direction, so that the experienced hunter saves his horse 
and, by cutting across the tracks, maintains his distance until the ostrich 
becomes fatigued and abandoning further effort at escape stops and burrows its 
head in the sand, presenting its body an easy target for the persistent sports¬ 
man. 



448 


THE LIVING WORLD. 





Occasionally in later years the ostrich is taken by means of nets, into 
which the birds are driven by dogs specially trained for that purpose. 

When the Arabians capture an ostrich , they cut its throat, and making a 
ligature below the opening, shake the bird thoroughly. After so doing the 
ligature is removed, when there pours from the wound a quantity of blood 
that is mixed with the fat, which is considered the most palatable of dainties. 
After feasting they flay the bird, using the skin for many useful purposes, 
such as making nets, cuirasses and bucklers. 

The inhabitants of Lybia breed ostriches extensively both for the feathers 
which they yield, in which there is a very great profit, and also, as is told, for 
riding animals. Several travellers tell us that the natives of South Africa 

break ostriches to the saddle and 
bridle, in which capacity it is af¬ 
firmed they are tractable and 
most serviceable. 

The Emeu ( Dromaius aus¬ 
tralis) is peculiar to the central 
plains of Australia, where in 
former years it was quite plenti¬ 
ful, but is now so seldom seen 
that we may expect it soon to be¬ 
come extinct. Specimens may be 
preserved, however, in aviaries, as 
it is easily domesticated and breeds 
in captivity. The emeu resembles 
the ostrich in many particulars ; 
enough, indeed, to give to it the 
relation of a half-brother. The 
head is very similar, except that 
the crown is covered with a tuft 
of coarse feathers; the neck, too, 
is not so bare as the ostrich’s. 
The most noticeable difference is 
found in the body covering, which 
in the emeu is of long, dark and 
hemp-like feathers, destitute of 
emeu {Dromaius). beauty or usefulness; the toes, too, 

are three in number, instead of 
two, as in the ostrich. Though the coarse feathers have no commercial value, 
the bird is hunted for its flesh, and for the oil that may be rendered out of 
its fat, which commands a high price. It is very swift of foot, but can 
be run down by horses and dogs without much difficulty. The dogs are 
trained to reserve the attack until the bird is thoroughly tired out, and then 
spring upon the throat in such manner as to escape the violent kicks which 
the emeu deals fiercely around, and which are sufficiently powerful to dis¬ 
able an assailant. The emeu does not kick forwards like the ostrich, but deliv¬ 
ers the blow sideways and backwards like a cow. 

The food of the emeu consists of grass and various fruits. Its voice is a 
curious hollow, booming or drumming kind of note, produced by the peculiar 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


449 


construction of the windpipe. The legs of this bird are shorter and stouter 
in proportion than those of the ostrich, and the wings are very short, and so 
small that when they lie closely against the body they can hardly be distin¬ 
guished from the general plumage. 

The nest of the emeu is made by scooping a shallow hole in the ground 
in some scrubby spot, and in this depression a variable number of eggs are 
laid. Dr. Bennett remarks that “there is always an odd number, some nests 
having been discovered with nine, others with eleven, and others, again, with 
thirteen.” The color of the eggs is, while fresh, a rich green, of varying 
quality, but after the shells are emptied and exposed to the light, the beautiful 
green hue fades into an unwholesome greenish brown. The parent birds sit 



RHEA, OR SOUTH AMERICAN OSTRICH AND HER YOUNG. 


upon their eggs, as has been related of the ostrich. The emeu is not polyga¬ 
mous, one male being apportioned to a single female. 

The Rhea {Rhea americanus ) is a species of struthious birds found only 
in South America, being particularly abundant in the La Plata region, and 
south as far as Patagonia. Like the ostrich, it is gregarious and wonderfully 
swift of foot, but its fleetness is of little advantage because of its habit of 
running in circles, so that expert hunters, when well mounted, easily come 
within shooting range, or ride the bird down. The Patagonians hunt the 
rhea on horseback, and with no other weapon than the “ bolas,” which is made 
by sewing a ball of lead into each end of a leather card several feet long, • 
though sometimes the cord is short, not exceeding three feet. Mr. Barrows 
has thus described a hunt of the rhea, or South American ostrich, of which he 
was a spectator: 

“ During our stay at Puan, about three hundred Indians united in a two 
29 







450 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


days’ ostrich hunt, resulting in the capture of about sixty birds of all sizes, 
from the full grown adult to the two months’ old chick. They began by 
beating over a large track of the plain, and, then closing in around, the 
game started. Stout greyhounds are used to good purpose, usually pulling 
down the swiftest birds within two miles at farthest. The Indians use 
the ‘ bolas ’ with much skill, the ones used for ostriches consisting of two 
half pound leaden balls, connected by eight feet of twisted rawhide twine. 
Whirling this about the head and letting fly at the running bird, they often 
entangle his legs at a distance of thirty to fifty yards, and I was told that it 
was frequently done at one hundred. Single hunters sometimes stalk ostriches 

in the following way: Get¬ 
ting to windward of the bird, 
the latter soon scents him 
and lies down, only sticking 
up his head above the grass. 
The hunter may then creep 
directly up within shot, if 
the grass be long enough to 
shelter him.” 

Mr. Darwin, to whom 
we are indebted for most of 
our knowledge respecting 
this bird, among many other 
interesting things, thus 
writes: 

“ This bird is well- 
known to abound on the 
plains of La Plata. To the 
north it is found, according 
to Azara, in Paraguay, where, 
however, it is not common ; 
to the south, its limit ap¬ 
pears to have been from 42° 
to 43 0 . It has not crossed 

the Cordilleras, but I have 

seen it within the first range 
of mountains in the Uspal- 
lata plain, elevated between 
six and seven thousand feet. 
The}' generally prefer running against the wind, yet at the instant they 
expand their wings, and, like a vessel, make all sail. On one fine hot day I 
saw several ostriches enter a bed of tall rocks, where they squatted concealed 
till nearly approached. 

“It is not generally known that ostriches readily take to the water. Mr. 

King informs me that at Patagonia, in the Bay of St. Bias, and at Port Valdez, 

he saw these birds swimming several times from island to island. They ran 
into the water both when driven down to a point, and likewise of their own 
accord, when not frightened. The distance crossed was about two hundred yards. 
When swimming, very little of their bodies appear above water, and their necks 



CASSOWARY. 






THE LIVING WORLD. 


45i 

are stretched a little forward; their progress is slow. On two occasions I saw 
some ostriches swimming across the Santa Cruz river, where it was about four 
hundred yards wide and the stream rapid. 

i The inhabitants who live in the country readily distinguish, even at a dis¬ 
tance, the male bird from the female. The former is larger and darker colored, and 
has a larger head. The ostrich, I believe the cock, emits a . singular deep- 
toned hissing note. When first I heard it, while standing in the midst of some 
hillocks, I thought it was made by some wild beast, for it is such a sound that 
•one cannot tell from whence it conies, or from how far distant. 

“When we were at Bahia Blanca, in the months of September and Octo¬ 
ber, the eggs were found in extraordinary numbers all over the country. They 
either lie scattered singly, in 
which case they are never hatched, 
or they are collected together into 
a hollow excavation, which forms 
the nest. Out of the four nests, 
which I saw, three contained 
twenty-two eggs each, and the 
fourth twenty-seven. The Gauchos 
(natives) unanimously affirm, and 
there is no reason to doubt their 
.statement, that the male bird alone 
hatches the eggs, and that he, for 
some time afterwards, accompanies 
the young. The cock, while on 
the nest, lies very close; I have 
myself almost ridden over one. 

It is asserted that at such times 
they are occasionally fierce, and 
•even dangerous, and that they 
have been known to attack a man 
-on horse-back, trying to kick and 
leap on him. My informant point¬ 
ed out to me an old man whom he 
had seen much terrified by one 01 
these birds chasing him.” 

The rhea is darkish-gray, 
taking a blackish-hue above, and 
being rather lighter below. The plumes of the wings are white, and a black band 
runs round the neck and passes into a semi-lunar patch on the breast. The neck 
is completely feathered. The average height of the rhea is about five feet, about 
the same as that of the emeu. 

Three species of rhea are, however, all inhabitants of South America, 
namely, the common rhea just described, Darwin’s rhea {Rhea darwinii ) and 
the large-billed rhea {Rhea macrorhyncha ). 

The Cassowary {Casuarius emeu) is found only in the Malaccas, nor has 
it been often seen anywhere except in the northern part of Australia. The 
appearance between the emeu and cassowary is very similar, as are their habits. 
The principal difference is observable in the head, which in the ^atter is bare of 



heemeted cassowary (Casuarius galeatus). 



452 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


feathers but surmounted by a helmet, or bony protuberance, which enables the 
creature to rush through a thicket with ease and without danger of injury, as 
the branches or thorns striking this helmet pass over the head and thus oppose 
no obstruction. Unlike the ostrich, emeu and rhea which live upon the open 
plain, the cassowary is a strictly bush bird, making its home in the thickest 
copses, through which it is able to run with surprising speed by reason of the 
head protection described. The plumage is very hair-like, in some respects 
resembling the long hair of the yak, except that it is of a glossy-black and flat at 
the ends. 

The eye of the cassowary is fierce and resolute, and its expression is carried 
out by the character of the bird, which is tetchy of disposition, and apt to take 
offence without apparent provocation. Like the bull, it is excited to unreasoning 
ire at the sight of a scarlet cloth, and, like the dog or cat, has a great antipathy 
towards ragged or unclean persons, attacking such individuals with some acerbity 
merely because their garments or general aspect do not please its refined taste. 
It is a determined and rather formidable antagonist, turning rapidly about and 
launching a shower of kicks which can do no small damage, their effect being 
considerably heightened by the sharp claws with which the toes are armed. In 
the countries which it inhabits, the native warriors are accustomed to use the 
innermost claw of the cassowary's foot as a head for their spears. The bird 
stands about five feet in height, and is about equal to the rhea in size of body.. 
The nesting habits of the two are identical. 

The Mooruk (Casuarius bennettii ) was supposed by Dr. Bennett to be a 
distinct bird, differing from the cassowary in the one single respect of having 
its head protected by a horny plate, resembling blackened mother-of-pearl, instead 
of the helmet-like protuberance. But later investigation proves that this slight 
difference is due to age, the older cassowaries having the helmet worn down 
until it appears as a flat, bony plate. The cassowary and mooruk are but 
different names for the same creature. 

There is a remarkable resemblance among all of the struthious or ostrich 
birds, not alone in habits, but in appearance and organization as well. Among 
no other family are the several characteristics so nearly identical, and yet we 
find the species widely distributed, as just described. Like the human race, 
they must have sprung from one common source, and like man, became scat¬ 
tered, and in the separation the few peculiarities which distinguish them apart 
have become developed. The causes of this distribution are not given us to 
know, but the fact that one species is peculiar to Africa, another to Australia, 
and another to South America, excites in us anew the ever-recurring thought,, 
“How wondrous are the ways of Providencel” 


BATS. 


METAMORPHOSIS OF BIRD TO MAMMAL. 


HE reptilian aspect of the flying pterodactyl, as de¬ 
scribed in my introduction to birds, formed a no 
more distinctly pronounced link connecting reptiles 
and birds than the bat furnishes between birds and 
mammals, and is but another of the many proofs 
furnished incontestably demonstrating the evolution 
of species by structural differences to accommodate 
the new births to changed conditions of the earth, 
as already explained. Progression is not always 
evidenced by these new creations, so to speak ; on 
the other hand there appear signs of retrogres¬ 
sion, or deterioration of species, the primitive births 
generally presenting less gracefulness of form and 
less adaptability of structure. Thus we observe in the bat a creature which, 
if regarded as a bird, is unsightly, malformed as a flyer and destitute 
of every economic feature that makes the bird a marvel of perfection in the 
field to which it has been assigned by nature. If consider the bat as a 
mammal its imperfections are no less pronounced, for which reason the combi¬ 
nation of its bird-like and mammalian characteristics compels its assignment to 
an intermediate class, or a link which binds 
the two orders together. 

With all the seeming faults of structure 
we are able to see in the bat , it is a living 
illustration of the attempts or processes of 
nature towards completing a radical change 
of organization and the development of dis¬ 
tinct and more highly organized species. The 
bat may therefore be regarded as the result 
of a modification of the bird by nature which, 
in the effort to develop into a mammal first 
divests itself of feathers but retains the phal¬ 
anges and wing structure. For the feathers, soft fur, corresponding to down, 
is substituted; or, if we chose to proceed more critically, the quill feathers 
are first removed but the creature is permitted to retain the down. 

The next process is probably conspicuous in the bones of the bird thus 
undergoing metamorphosis. The hollowness of the bones which distinguishes 
the bird gradually changes by the softening of the osseous ducts ramifying the 
cavities until marrow appears, for though the bones of bats are not nearly so 



HEADS OF EGYPTIAN BATS. 




THE LIVING WORLD. 



moss-nosed bat (Sj ynotus barbastellus ). 


454 

solid as those of mammals, certainly they are not so light, nor is the hollow 
so great, as are the bones in birds. The next change is to be noted m the 
month, which has lost the beak destitute of teeth, and instead the bat has 
received a provision that enables it to seize its prey in a different manner. The 
molar teeth, however, do not appear, as the creature has not yet developed into- 

a mammal so highly organized. 
The keeled breast of the bird has 
disappeared and the fulness which 
the breast-bone supplied is par¬ 
tially retained by the substitution 
of ribs, to which fore-legs are at¬ 
tached, followed by the appear¬ 
ance of mammae, the only distinct 
feature which binds this singular 
creature to the mammalian order. 

I do not mean bj’’ the above 
reasoning that the changes, as de¬ 
scribed, have actually taken place, 
but rather to indicate the proba¬ 
bilities, and what seems to be jus¬ 
tified by the analogy that exists,, 
showing the correspondence the bat occupies between birds and mammals. 

The bat is a common and by no means pleasant sight, for even when harm¬ 
less there is something uncanny about its appearance and restless flight. A 
wise man once said that “ all that is unknown is accepted as great or terrible, 
and this is certainly true of the harmless species of bat which flies about our 
rooms. The bat , to enable it to 
fly, has a long fore-arm and 
fingers united by a membrane 
which extends back to the hind 
feet, which are so constructed as 
to bend backwards and thus keep 
its sail unfurled. More than four 
hundred species of bats have been 
distinguished, so it is easy to see 
that there is room for the greatest 
variety of habits. Doubtless the 
popular fear of the bat has been 
increased by the hoary antiquity 
of the superstitions which have 
gathered about it and which like a 
great snow-ball-, ever increase as 
they roll along. The Jews classed 
the bat among unclean animals (and this with no reference to the parasites 
which constantly attend it), and the 'sanction of religion thus lent to popular 
superstition must, of itself, have ruined the reputation of the creature. The 
Greek mythology made the bat one of the symbols of the Queen of the 
Plutonian World, possibly from its choosing the dusk for an appearance so 
mysterious that the creature seemed to spring out of empty space. The Greek 



early morning bat (Vesperugo noctula). 






THE LIVING WORLD. 


455 





mythology has been the honey-cup of all imaginative writers of succeeding 
peoples, and hence again human teachings would lead one to associate with the 
^^ peculiarities none the less alarming because preposterous. Still farther the 
rapid motions and ever- 
changing directions of flight, 
the darkness amidst which 
it exerts its activity, and the 
isolation of the places which 
it selects for its abode, all 
unite to deepen the impres¬ 
sion with which one’s early 
education leaves him. Art¬ 
ists, likewise,—those men 
who address the eye and the 
imagination so effectively,— 
have so associated the bat 

with the horrible and the long klked bat (Plecotus auritus). 

repulsive, that even the 

witches, whose attendants the bats are so often made, seem human and beau¬ 
tiful in comparison. Demonology has interest of its own, but the evil demon 

is represented as having a 
bat-like appearance, so that 
the poor creature seems to 
have been cursed on all 
sides. Among the Orient¬ 
als, however, the bat is no 
harbinger of misfortune, 
suffering, or crime, but the 
accepted precursor of good 
long winged bat (. Miniopteris) >. luck, happiness, and virtue; 

and in some countries the bat is even converted into a cherished household 
favorite. It has been said that the bats differed among themselves greatly in 
the matter of habits. Many of them, 
though giving birth to twins, raise 
but one of the young, thus intui¬ 
tively accepting the Spartan method 
of limiting population and destroy¬ 
ing the weak and unpromising. In 
some species, the male is the one 
provided with breasts for the nour¬ 
ishment of the young—a circum¬ 
stance less surprising to those who, 
like myself, have known men whose 
mammary glands secreted quite 
copious supplies of milk. In other 
species, again, the males use their 
superior strength in carrying the young while these are too weak to care for them¬ 
selves. Thus does the animal creation suggest many an analogue or teach many 
a lesson to its highest order—Man. There are men, and their number is 


gray clap nosed bat (Rhinopoma rnicrophyflum). 




















THE LIVING WORLD. 


45 6 




constantly increasing, who believe that while it is “excellent to have a giant’s 
strength, it is tyrannous to use it like a giant,” and the day is dawning when 
mankind will not excuse each other for the non-use or the abuse of the power 

which each has, nor use 
woman’s greater physical 
weakness for excusing un¬ 
necessary abstinence from 
effort, or for adding un¬ 
fairly to her burdens be¬ 
cause she can make no 
successful resistance. 

It may not be known 
to all that though bats are 
gregarious and companion¬ 
able with each other, their 
polity is like that of the 
Shakers, and forbids co-edu¬ 
cation, flirting or the com¬ 
mingling of the sexes. The 
young ordinarily f a s t e n 
themselves to the body of 
the parent, and are carried 
about wherever the mother 
flies, though scarcely per¬ 
ceptible, so closely do they 
frying fox ( Pteropus edulus). . cling to her body. 

Bats are divided, first, 

into the fruit-eating bats and the insect-eating bats. The Fruit-eaters (Fru- 
givora) are inhabitants of the tropics, and are not found in America, so that 
their depredations may not be 
added to the fears of those who 
always assert that “ the fruit 
is all killed.” The fruit-eaters 
will take entire possession of 
trees, so that to say they are 
“as thick as leaves in Vallam- 
brosa,” would be no exaggera¬ 
tion, and they produce the im¬ 
pression of a new and curious 
and luxuriant foliation. They 
do not seem to like the cocoa- 
nut or the mango, but do not 
show the same aversion to the 
juice of the cocoanut, of which 
they will drink till intoxicated, 
and then exhibit all the amusing 
and all the disgusting effects of 
inebriety. Those who have not succeeded in “getting dead-drunk,” fly in a 
veering sort of way, and in no respect differ from the “antic disposition” 


horse-shoe BAT (Rhinolophus ferrum cquinum). 





THE LIVING WORLD. 


457 



AMERICAN BAT (Vespertilio murinus 


'which the farmer assumes when, “ having sold a load of wheat, he takes with 
lim too heavy a load of old rye.” An Indian species ( Cynopterus marginatus) 
are specially destructive to orchards, and, as they will travel forty miles in 
a single night, it is difficult to 
exterminate them. The insect or 
carnivorous bats , however, are the 
more numerous. 

The Horse-shoe Nose Bat 
{Rhino nycteris ferrum equinum ) 
seems to feed upon beetles and 
to seek “ the dark, unfathomed 
caves of ocean ” in their hatred 
of the light. Its wing covers an 
expanse of a foot and a quarter, 
so that its size might terrify even 
•though we are not prejudiced 
against the family. 

The Lyre-like Bat {Mega¬ 
derma lyra) is a blood-sucker, for 
which office the conformation of 
its snout qualifies it. It has been 
inowii to seize a smaller bat of 
a different species and after sucking its blood, to then proceed to devour every¬ 
thing but the bones and head. To these smaller bats the nursery fables of 

ogres are only too true, and 
unfortunately for their 
comfort the ogres are only 
too numerous. One is 
made to think of Ulysses 
and his companion in the 
care of Outis and of his 
superior good fortune in be¬ 
ing able to escape the dread¬ 
ful fate which threatened 
him. 

The Red Bat {Atalal- 
apha noveboracensis ) is ex¬ 
ceedingly common in the 
Atlantic States, and disturbs 
one’s comfort by invading 
the sanctity of one’s domi¬ 
cile though simply in pur¬ 
suit of the insects attracted 
by the lamplight. It is 
harmless unless attacked, 
when it is both pugnacious 
and able to inflict slight 
hut painful wounds. When excited to anger it is not contented with action, but 
like a human being raises its shrill voice, not believing that “ words to the heat 



THE NYCTURUS OF UPPER EGYPT. 











458 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


of deeds too cold breath give.” One of its devices when worsted is to feign 
death as we have found some insects and the opossum also to do. This bat has- 
been known to follow the captor of its young just as the mother-bird will do, 
or as a cat will follow in the hope of rescuing its kittens. . . 

The Long-eared Bat ( Pleocotus macrotis ) is asinine in its provision of ears, 
which in length, breadth and uprightness are wonderful to behold, and possibly, 
as in the case of Little Red Riding Hood’s tormentor, enable it “ to hear the 
better, my dear.” It is not uncommon in the south or southwest and is likewise 
found’ among the other remarkable products of the Pacific slope. 

The Collar Bat ( Chiromeles torquatus ) has, irrespective of sex, pouches for 
carrying the young, so that evidently, under its form of civilization, both male 

and female take charge of 
the nursery. 

The Hare-bat (Noctilia 
leporinus) is notable, be¬ 
cause in eating it stuffs its 
cheek-pouches until these 
can hold no more, then 
swallows their contents, re¬ 
jects and again swallows 
them before digestion be¬ 
gins. An old gentleman, 
disabled by the gout, was 
listening to his little girl 
read, and when she nar¬ 
rated the possession of four 
stomachs by the camel, he 
could contain himself no 
longer, but full of the bliss 
of unlimited eating, ex¬ 
claimed: “My dear, what 
a wonderful dispensation of 
Providence ! ” Had he but 
heard of the double-gor- 
have been his envy. The 
terrestrial locomotion of the 



south American vampire ( V . spectrum ). 


mandizing hare-bat , how much greater might 
hare-bat climbs backward, thus reproducing the 
crab, and, finally, he is like the fish-hawk, an angler darting upon the succu¬ 
lent shrimp. 

The American Rose-leafed Bat ( Macrotus waterhousii ) flourishes in Cali¬ 
fornia, Mexico and the West Indies. It is a singular looking creature, whose 
thick nose protrudes from a space which resembles an inverted V. 

The South American Vampire ( Vampyrus spectrum ) has, after many days, 
had his character vindicated, for science, although admitting that he loves blood, 
has ascertained that he confines his attentions to animals not human, and even 
then any injury proceeds not from the loss of a little blood but from the inflam¬ 
mation of the bitten part. It is admitted that in some cases this much traduced 
creature will fasten itself to the exposed toe of a restless sleeper, and will draw 
blood, but the damage done will not be great. 

The Kalong ( Pteropus edulis ) is a black bat found in Borneo and Java, 




THE LIVING WORLD. 



459 


attacked by vampires. 


whose body is as large as that of a small dog and which is hunted as an article 
of food. 

The smallest of bats is the Pteropus minimus of Java, but its diminu¬ 
tive size does not interfere 
with its having a tongue 
which it can protrude to the 
length of two inches. 

The Egyptian Wing- 
foot (. Pteropus aegyptiacus ) has 
eighteen inches of expanse 
to its wings. 

The Glossophaga, or 
Tongue-using Bats are 
found in Brazil and Guinea, 
and belong to the vampires. 

The Wart-lipped Vam¬ 
pires ( Stenoderma ) have their 
peculiarity indicated by their 
name. There is also a Tail¬ 
less Vampire ( Desmodes 
rufus ). 

Of the horse-shoe family of bats, mention may be made of the Egyptian 
species (. Rhinopoma microphyllus ); the pouched species belonging to Egypt 

( Nycteris thebaica ), and the 
one found in Java (Nicteris 
javanica ). 

Of the common bat family 
we may add at least the names 
of Vespertilio alecto, the Mo¬ 
zambique Green Bat ( Vesper - 
tilio viridis ), the Arboreal Bat 
of Europe ( Vespertilio serotinus) 
which lives in pairs, the Sene¬ 
gal Flying-bat (.Molossus dau- 
bentonii) and the Flying Mar¬ 
mot (Vespertilio nigrita). 

Doubtless the fact that bats 
frequented altars and feasted 
upon the remains of sacrifices 
added them at once to the sym¬ 
bolism in Egypt, and led to 
their presence at scenes of 
witchcraft. Shakespeare, whose 
knowledge of folk-lore was 
very great, makes one of Mac¬ 
beth’s witches say “But in a sieve I’ll thither sail, and, like a rat without a 
tail I’ll do, I’ll do, I’ll do.” And again when the witches make their 
demoniac broth, they say “ Wool of bat and tongue of dog.” Some eight or tern 
more bats deserve mention because of one peculiarity or another. 


THE COLUGO, WITH YOUNG. 



460 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


There is the Pouched Bat ( Cynonycteris grandidieri ) which seems to have 
been fitted out so that the male shall help the female in carrying their papooses. 

The Common European Flying Bat (. Pteropus medzus) may be encountered 
while our restless travellers are “doing the old world.” 

The African Hammer-head Bat (, Sphyrocephalus monstrosus) is remarkable 
for his cranium. 

The Armor-bearing Bat (. Phyllorhina armigera) is an Indian species, nota¬ 
ble for being possibly the smallest of the horse-shoe bats. 

The most common American Bat ( Vespertilio sublatus ) is with us so fre¬ 
quently that we may care to know his name. 

The Fruit-scenting Bat (. Rhinopoma nicrophyllum ) is of scientific interest 
as a connecting link between the fruit-eating and the flesh-eating bats, as he does 
somewhat in both directions. 

The Nyctinome (Nyctinomus nasutus ) is peculiar from the facility with 
which it can walk upon the ground. 

The Mexican Tongued Bat (. Phyllonycteris sezecorni) uses its feet squirrel¬ 
like while it extracts flavor and succulence from berries. 

The Fruit-eater (. Artibeus perspicillatus ) is not a favorite in Jamaica, 
because of its destruction of fruit; but, with all the efforts made to destroy it, 
the species continue numerous. 

The Colugo ( Galeopithecus volans ) is found in Sumatra, Borneo and 
Malacca. It is arboreal, and its membranous parachute enables it to pass with 
ease and rapidity from tree to tree, although it is not a true flyer. It has been 
known to cover the distance of seventy yards, but in doing this descended 
forty feet. This creature bears a striking resemblance to the flying fox, and 
also possesses many characteristics peculiar to the monkey family, with which 
it is classed by many naturalists, but as a compromise it may be properly 
regarded as a transition link* between bats and monkeys, being more nearly 
related to the marmoset. Its membranous wings—so-called—resemble those of 
the flying squirrel, but its powers of flight are much greater. They have been 
seen to leave the top of a tree and sail to another quite as much as seventy- 
five feet distant, and that, too, without descending more than a dozen feet. By 
a peculiar structure of the tail, which controls a membranous expansion extend¬ 
ing from the rear, the creature is able, in a measure, to direct its course and 
also to rise over inconsiderable obstructions which may chance to be in its 
path. 

The colugo never stirs about in the daylight, but issues forth at early 
twilight and breaks its fast upon winged insects, but retires after a few hours 
of activity to certain trees off the leaves of which it feeds as a dessert to its 
insect food. It is also said to eat fruits of various kinds. 


MAMMALS 



UR delightful labor is now approaching a close, for we have 
arrived at the last division of our subject, and 
whether we look backward or forward we are ready 
to recognize the marvellousness of creation and to 
feel with new force the thoughtfulness, power and 
mercy of a Creator whose wisdom is equally appar¬ 
ent whether exhibited in the most minute or in the 
largest of creatures; whether studied in the simplest 
form of protozoa , or in the delicate and complicated, 
mechanism of the highest of animals—Man. Think of 
the harmony of adjustment required for the exercise 
of such endowments as enabled earth’s most gifted 
sons to live and do and suffer; to transform mere 
inert matter into the subtlest thought or the most ennobling deed. Con¬ 
sider all that is implied in the mere fact of human existence, and 
we shall realize that no inspiration of poet or seer approaches the 
strangeness, the unsuspected harmony which lies all about us awaiting only 
our awakening from a life in the senses, and a life which is dead in comparison 
with its possibilities. I have endeavored to approach the story of creation in an 
humble and reverent spirit. I have sought to escape the folly of preconceived 
ideas, and to substitute for carelessness and indifference an acquaintance with a 
life that is all about us, and which illustrates each instant the wisdom and 
mercy of the omniscient and bounteous Creator. Matter is to my mind but the 
sensible form assumed by spirit; the web which spirit weaves into many a 
pattern and many a design. Matter acted upon by the power of the Creator 
becomes the visible expression of the infinitely varied tones which unite to form 
the world’s diapason which has marked the rise and setting of each day’s sun 
through the countless aeons of the past. It is not alone the rocks that tell the 
story to such a reverent mind as that of Hugh Miller. It is not simply the 
plant life which has such interest for Asa Gray that tells ' the story of the 
never-ceasing processes which illustrate the care of the Creator, his infinite 
wisdom and his method of governing the world of matter by law, which shall 
be the natural expression of the harmonious relationship of each object to its 
work in life. Our story has now brought us to the threshold of the highest 
realm in the animal kingdom, and yet we shall not find greater wonders than 
were furnished by the worm, the fish, the reptile and the bird. 

By the process which is termed evolution , the Lord hath seen fit to unroll 
one form from another, ever adjusting the writing on the new page to the full¬ 
est harmony with what has gone before and with what is to come after. If 
the creature is, like the tarpan , to inhabit dreary wastes and serve the needs of a 

(461) 



462 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


barbaric people, then will it be found to have evolved those characteristics 
which will best enable it to fulfil the conditions of the life which it is to lead. 
If my attempt has been at all successful, I have shown the succession in life- 
forms and how this succession is as necessary as the link to the chain. It is 
not alone in the church that there is a doctrine of apostolic succession, but all 
life is but an illustration of God’s mighty wisdom and providence, and his 
creatures are constantly giving him the praise which consists not in mere 
petition, but in the proper conduct of the life assigned to them, and the dis¬ 
charge of such offices as have been entailed upon them. The animal world as 
.such recognizes, through instinct, the will of its Creator, and yields an unre- 
luctant obedience to the laws prescribed for its being. To an animal, “ laborare 
£st orare ” and by night and by day the animal world is faithful to the laws 
of its being, and thus justifies the opening of the anthem called Genesis: 
“And God said, let the waters under the heaven be gathered together unto one 
place, and let the dry land appear; and it was so. And God said, let the 
earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed and the fruit tree yielding fruit 
after his kind, whose seed is in itself, upon the earth ; and it was so. And God 
said, let the waters bring forth abundantly the moving creature that hath life, 
and fowl that may fly above the earth in the open firmament of heaven. 
And God created great whales, and every living creature that moveth, which 
the waters brought forth abundantly, after their kind, and every winged fowl 
after his kind; and God saw that it was good. And God said, let the earth 
bring forth the living creature after his kind, cattle and creeping things, and 
beasts of the earth after his kind; and it was so.” Or as the non-inspired poet 
hath sung: 

Thou from primeval nothingness did’st call, 

First chaos, then existence ; Lord ! on Thee 

Eternity had its foundation ; all 

Spring forth from thee ; of light, joy, harmony, 

Sole origin ; all life, all beauty, Thine. 

Thy word created all, and doth create ; 

Thy splendor fills all space with rays divine ; 

Thou art, and wert, and shalt be ! Glorious 
Light-giving, life-sustaining Potentate! 

Thy chains the unmeasured universe around ; 

Upheld by Thee, by Thee inspired with breath ! 

Thou the beginning with the end hast bound, 

And beautifully mingled life and death ! 

As sparks mount upward from the fiery blaze, 

So suns are born, so worlds spring forth from Thee; 

And as the spangles in the sunny rays 

Shine round the silver snow, the pageantry 

Of heaven’s bright army glitters in Thy praise. 

With the end of the reign of birds, the world was ready for the appear¬ 
ance of the mammal and a new order entered upon existence, beginning with the 
duck-mole and echidnse, and progressing upward till it reached the quadrumana 
or primate , the highest class below man and supposed by some to have been 
man’s ancestors. Such theorists however seem to overlook the fact that the 
quadrumana while developing even structural differences of moment, are wholly 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



destitute of those intellectual and moral attributes which alone fit man for ter¬ 
restrial sovereignty. If the quadrumana are to be likened to man at all, it 
would seem as though it should be only to the debased and wholly animal 
man whose representative in fiction is Shakespeare’s Caliban. 

The readers of The Living World will have found out for themselves that 
I have in the introduction and in the chapters preliminary to the various 
orders, at least endeavored to submit the evidence which, to my mind, proves 
conclusively that science is not like the dead languages, a subject under¬ 
stood and exhausted, and that there seems to be with expanding knowledge a 
fuller appreciation of the necessary agreement between intelligent science and 
the Genetic account of the material world. I have regarded evolution as a 
new term, not as a new idea. I accept the fact that the finite mind is 
prone to make 
many mistakes 
in regard to 
the purposes 
and methods of 
the Infinite 
Mind, and 
therefore sug¬ 
gest that, re¬ 
garding evolu¬ 
tion as a method 
of the Creator, 
and not as one 
of the gods of 
the Pantheist, 
there is every¬ 
thing to con¬ 
vince the stu¬ 
dent of its re¬ 
ality and truth. 

An effort has 
been made to 
trace trans¬ 
itions without 
at all detracting 

from the inter- duck mole and nest. 

-est or popular 

value of The Living World. In the various subordinate introductory chapters, 
the fossil forms have been referred to as likely to be of interest to the intelligent 
reader, and as bearing out the conclusions reached by me claiming 
nothing for myself but honesty of purpose and strict adherence to all promises 
made to the reader. The experience of breeders throws light upon and adds 
strength to the doctrine of “natural selection,” and sufficiently shows how 
animals are adapted to their environment. Fossil life has been sufficiently 
dwelt upon to open the field to the ingenious, and enough for the purpose of 
illustration. Classes and orders have been considered so far as they^ could 
have popular interest, or as they serve for types, and it is believed that no 










THE LIVING WORLD. 




work on the subject treated by The Living World will be found more 
complete or more satisfactory for any one desiring the real knowledge 
which persons at large wish in regard to subjects which do not directly form 
a part of their daily life. No one more than myself can appreciate so 
fully the distance between desire and achievement; but many may justify my 
belief that there is need for information which a person in active life 

has not time to ex¬ 
tract from mere data,, 
especially when these 
are obscured by 
technical terms. The 
changes of animals 
when domesticated 
have been sufficiently 
used in illustration 
of the fact that it lies 
within the opportuni¬ 
ties of any one to 
watch the method 
which the Creator has 
prescribed as the law of 
animal life, and which will be further exhibited in the descriptions which follow. 


the urchin ( Echidna hystrix ) and duck mole swimming. 


MONOTREMES. 


The Duck-billed Platypus (Ornithorhyncus anatinus) is aquatic, and 
may well serve as a link between birds and mammals. It is about a foot and 
three-quarters in length, and its 
long, flat, otter-like body is clad 
in soft, thick fur, brown above 
and whitish beneath. Its toes 
are united by a membrane, its 
tail is flat and obtuse, and its 
broad, elongated muzzle looks 
as if it had been borrowed from 
the duck. It burrows in the 
banks of streams, and is there¬ 
fore called river mole or mul- 
ligong. The animal is, as has 
been said, properly aquatic, but 
it can move about on land, and 
even climb, though in the latter 
exercise it braces its body 
against two opposite walls and 
wriggles itself up in a way 

quite well known to the fertile- porcupine echidna. 

minded “ small boy.” It is 

Australian in its habitat, and may well serve the purpose of marking the 
transition from the highest types of birds to the lowest forms of the mammals. 

The Echidna, or Porcupine Ant-eater (.Echidna hystrix , or aculeata . or 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


465 

Tachyglossus aculeatus) y is about ten or twelve inches long, has only a rudi¬ 
mentary tail, and a snout noticeable for the way in which it tapers to a point. 
Its dark brown body is covered with white spines; which are black 011 the tips! 
Its fore feet, employed in digging, are armed with long, stout nails, while the 
hind. feet are used as hand-barrows (or feet barrows), with the unpatented 
addition of a shovel. The mouth is a mere aperture, sufficient, however, for 
protruding and retracting its much-celebrated tongtie—its weapon of offence. 
This long and much-used member is constantly moistened with a viscid fluid, 
which enables the animal to hold securely whatever its tongue can reach. In 
the absence of teeth, it is provided with spines on the roof of its mouth and 
on its tongue. Among its other peculiarities of structure is the depression or 
seeming disappearance of the mammary glands when these serve no purpose 
for the suckling of the young. When the mammary glands are distended, 
there are formed two pouches, which serve as cosy apartments for the young, 
but which disappear altogether 
with the distension of the mam¬ 
mary glands. The flesh of the 
echidna is said to taste like 
that of young pigs. Like the 
preceding species it is peculiar 
to Australia, where so many 
singular forms of life are to be 
found. 

The link which seems to 
bind birds with mammals is 
found in the duck-billed mole 
and the echidna , in a direction 
where we would be least likely 
to expect it, and exhibits a 
fact which compels us to pause 
with profound astonishment at 
the marvellous provisions and 
apparent eccentricities of na¬ 
ture. The surprise to which I 
refer proceeds from the fact 
that these two creatures, instead of producing their young like all other mam¬ 
malians, are bird or reptilian in respect to the laying of eggs, from which the 
young are brought forth by incubation. This assertion was long ridiculed as 
an idle tale, worthy to rank with that which represents the cock as laying 
an egg, or a mare’s building a nest; but it is no longer so regarded, since 
the truth of the claim has been well established, and is now accepted by all 
naturalists. The eggs which these two quadrupeds lay are very much alike, 
that of the duck mole being only a little larger. They are oblong, and cov¬ 
ered with a leathery integument like those of many reptiles. Whether the 
eggs are really incubated is still a question for some dispute, though the weight 
of authority is in the affirmative. When the young issue from the egg they 
proceed at once to extract nourishment from the mammae of the mother after 
the manner of other quadrupeds, and are therefore true mammalians, with only 
the differences above explained. 

30 



ECHIDNA. DUCK MOEE. 



466 


THE LIVING WORLD 


MARSUPIALS. 

The Marsupials, or Pouched Animals, are curious from their appearance 
and habits, highly considered by hunters, and of interest to naturalists. Their 
organization is higher than that of the preceding class and they require for 
the support of life conditions less favorable than do those of the group last 
described. The marsupials , as we know them, like the monotremes, are 
not typical forms but varieties of these, so that succession in the 
order of animal life requires that these two families be studied by. means 
of fossil remains. This study, unpromising at first sight, becomes of interest 
so soon as those who visit our museums have been supplied with an intelligent 
object and sufficient stimulus to cause their curiosity to lead them to a per¬ 
sonal examination of specimens. The Metatheria, or Fossil Marsupials have 
pubic bones, double system of teeth, five-toed feet, besides one or two other 

characteristics not of popular 
interest. The Dromo- 
therium (an American spe¬ 
cies represented solely by its 
lower jaw and teeth) was 
judged by the naturalists’ 
safest test, the teeth, to have 
been a pre-historic ant-eater. 
The Dryolestes seems to 
have been a small opossum 
whose progeny were to be¬ 
come relatively “ sons of 
Anak.” The subsidence of 
the continent of Australia 
is comparatively recent and 
its fossil remains, though 
gigantic in size, evidently 
belong to species still exist¬ 
ent. Still they serve to 
show that the founder of 
the marsupial family was at 
once carnivorous and herbi¬ 
vorous, and to suggest that 
of them favoring the kan¬ 
garoo type and becoming frugivorous, and others developing the other side of 
their possibilities and becoming dasyures and carnivora. The typical fossil is 
called Thybacoleo; the earliest kangaroo the Diprotodon or Nototheria; and 
the ancestors of the dasyures being named Phascolotherium ( amphilestes ), 
Amphitherium, Spalacotherium, or Triconodon. The manufactured names 
of the systematic zoologists have no great significance when translated, but as 
a name is only used for identification, any one about to visit a museum can 
copy the technical names and study such specimens as the museum possesses. 
In some of these forms the joining of the toes has proceeded so far as to 
give four toes instead of five, and to suggest the process by which a toed 
animal may in the lapse of time grow into one which has a solid hoof. 
With the marsupials , as with the monotremes and all other classes, we shall 



merlin’s (extinct) opossum. 

its successors developed along distinct lines, some 






THE LIVING WORLD. 


467 




hardly expect to trace every step of 
varieties which will, because of the 
peculiarities of their structure, be 
classed differently by various natural¬ 
ists, as these are most impressed by 
one or another structural peculiarity. 
This very complication of structure 
seems to our minds most conclusive 
evidence of the gradual evolution of 
the animal kingdom, as well as for 
the reversions and freaks which 
might reasonably be expected. 
Some of the marsupials have not 
even a rudimentary pouch, and yet 
the other features of their structure 
relate them closely to the pouch-bear¬ 
ing family. The existing forms of 
marsupials do not directly represent 
succession to the monotremes, but a 
study of their fossil ancestors has 
led naturalists to assign to the 
family the second place in the as¬ 
cending scale. 


an insensible gradation or to fail to find 


THE OPOSSUM. 

Many things have united to lend 
reputation to the American Opos¬ 
sum. For hunting this animal is 
a familiar sport to those who live 
in the Southern States; its flesh is 
highly prized by the negroes ; its 
form, its habits and its characteristics are all such as to attract atten- 


COMMON OPOSSUM. 

very troublesome^ to the fowls and 


tion and excite comment. The Com¬ 
mon Opossum {Didelphis virginiana) ) 
as the name implies, is common to 
nearly all the States of America, though 
most persistently hunted in the South, 
yet the flesh of those found in the 
Northern States, where the cold is severe, 
supplies a much more palatable dish. 
This species is about three feet in 
length, and half as much in thickness, 
is grayish-white, and its prehensile 
tail is allowed about a foot and a 
quarter of length, and supplied with 
scales instead of fur. Being a remark¬ 
ably good climber, and uniformly in a 
state of ravenous hunger, the opossum is 
eggs, which farmers do not raise for the 



468 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




pleasure of such tramps as he. Still, it is to the opossum that we owe our 
symbol for feigning successfully; for, when no other course is open before 
him, the opossum will roll itself into a ball, and “play dead,” so that no abuse 
can make it betray its continued vitality. The young, as soon as born, are 
retired to the' ventral pouches of the mother where they remain until they 

have attained their growth. 

The Crab-eating Opossum or 
Didelphis Cancrivora (.Philander 
cancrivorus ) is smaller and darker- 
hued than the common opossum . 
Even more than in the case of 
other species is the tail of the crab¬ 
eating opossum his dependence for 
clinging to branches of a tree while 
feeding on the fruit. It is specially 
fond of crabs, and quite successful 
in fishing for them in Brazilian 
waters. The flesh of the opossum 
is too rich for the untrained palate, 
but by those who have acquired 
broad nosed wombat. the taste, it is said to resemble 

the English hare. Merlin’s Opos¬ 
sum (. Philander dorsigcrus , or Didelphis dorsigera) has such a poorly-developed 
pouch that very soon does it 
transfer its young to its back, 
where they hold on partly by 
their feet, but much more by 
twisting their little tails around 
that of their parent. This is 
a Surinam species, and is quite 
handsomely colored in gray- 
brown, or whitish-yellow, with 
darker brown markings around 
the eyes and forehead. The 
Yapock (Cheirionectes yapock , 
or variegatus ) is entirely aquatic, 
cannot climb, but is a remark¬ 
able swimmer and diver, has 
webbed-feet (the front ones used 
for burrowing being less so), 
and squirrel-like cheek-pouches. 

It is found in Brazil and in 

Guiana. There are many spe- targe-browed wombat. 

cies belonging to the marsupial 

genus, some of which may be briefly mentioned as follows : 

The Didelphis Quirca Opossum is a Brazilian species differing mainly 
in smallness of size, from the Virginia opossum. They are here referred to 
because one reading accounts of life in Brazil is likely to see them mentioned. 
The Didelphis Elegans and Murina are pouchless and carry their young as do 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


469 








the Indian women. The Didelphis Imaavida and the Noctivaga belong to 
the Peruvian forms which are strictly vegetarian. The Broad-nosed Wombat 
(Phascolomys platyrhinus ) is notable for the broadness of its nose, its size and 
its yellow, coat of fur. The Broad-fronted Wombat [Phascolomys latifrons ) 
has a hairy muzzle and goes clothed in silken hair. The Kaponne ( Cuscus 
orientalis ) is considered by tbe natives a delicacy. The Vulpine Phalanger 
(Trichosurus vulpinus ) eats like 
a squirrel and looks like a fox. 

Albert’s Petaurus, and Bern¬ 
stein’s Petaurus [Pe t a urus 
albertisii , and bernsteinii) , after 
carrying the young about for 
a long period safely housed in 
their pouches transfer them to 
their backs like the species 
known as Merlin’s opossum 
above noted. The Dromiciae 
[Dromicia concinna , and neillii') 
are very small, have the skin 
of the body extending down the 
legs as far as the ankle, and 
su gg es t a connecting-link be¬ 
tween the parachute-carriers Australian bear. 

and the species which lack 

this appendage. The Tailed Dromicia [Dromicia caudata) is so named from 
its vast superiority over the other species in the matter of a caudal appendage. 

The Great-browed Wom¬ 
bat [Phascolomys latifrons) has the 
general appearance of a bear of 
small size. It is a burrower, noc¬ 
turnal in its habits and feeds upon 
roots and herbs. It is a tailless 
animal and its large head seems 
to have been purchased at the ex¬ 
pense of the rest of his anatomy. 
It has its strongest likeness'to the 
bear, possibly, in its awkwardness, 
as it is pouched like the marsupalia, 
toothed like the rodentia, has many 
anatomical features in common with 
the badger, and is as ridiculous in 
appearance, movement and amia- 

phalansbr (Phalangistamipina). bility as a trained bear. As a 

mining engineer it absolutely 
threatens the permanency of human structures, by communicating subterranean 
passage ways which suggest the difficulties encountered and the success achieved 
at Mt. Cenis, 

The Australian Bear, or Kaola [Phascolardos cinereus ), is tailless but 
keeps the ventral pouch ; it is arboreal, nocturnal, and produces the same general 


470 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




FLYING ARIEL. 


impression as a bushy, little puppy, whose furzy ears would occupy one’s 
attention but for the quizzical expression of its face. It is specially interesting 
to the naturalist because it seems to be a connecting link between the 
opossuip, the kangaroo, the bear and the sloth. n . A 

The Spotted Cuscus (Cuscus maculatus ) is found m New Guinea, and on 

the Molucca Islands, but not else¬ 
where in the same sea. It is 
hunted alike for the table and for 
its fur, which is generally some 
shade of white, with black spots 
arranged as if forming a regular 
pattern. It is arboreal, and nature 
seems to have gifted its tail with 
such tenacity as to avoid any occa¬ 
sion for conferring locomotive power 
on its feet. It is another of the 
animals which will “play possum,” 
and as it will never move while 
conscious of observation, children 
sometimes capture it by wearing 
out the muscles even of so pre¬ 
hensile a tail, for the children will 
sit and watch the animal until its 
muscular force is exhausted; 
naturally the natives would find 
more expeditious ways of bagging their game. 

The Great Flying Phalanger (Petaurus australis , or flaviventer, ) belongs to 
the family which is supplied 


with a parachute. and a prehen¬ 
sile tail. Its color is so variable 
that a description given from 
one animal might be contra¬ 
dicted by the next specimen 
subjected to examination. The 
species called Sugar Squirrel 
(Petaurus , or Belideus sciureus ,) 
possibly because it is no squirrel 
at all, is very beautiful as an 
illustration of what an animal 
Beau Brummel can achieve in 
the combination of furs. It is 
nocturnal, arboreal, and makes 
nothing of a flight of thirty or 
forty feet when exercising as a 
performer on the trapeze. It is 
playful, gregarious and not unable to endure captivity. Its fur is a soft brownish- 
gray, the under parts whitish, a broad black stripe down the spine, and a tail 
whose length and thickness ought to satisfy the most exacting wearer of fur. 

The Ariel Flying Petaurus ( Petaurus arid ) is so graceful in its progress 


Tasmanian wolf (Thylacinus cynocephalus ). 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


47 i 




through the air as to have deserved, as well as to have received, the name of 
the daintiest imagination of the world’s greatest poet, who seems to have lav¬ 
ished upon the “ Tempest ” all the beautiful fancies which could find suitable 
place, even when the scene was to be cast in a wholly unreal world, and the 
poet was to be limited solely by the quality and fecundity of his fancy. 

The Taguan ( Petaurista 
taguanoides ) is mentioned be¬ 
cause travellers seem fre¬ 
quently to forget that what 
is familiar and commonplace 
to them, may be wholly 
meaningless to their readers. 

The taguan is found in New 
South Wales, and its more 
than three feet of body and 
tail render it eminent in the 
matter of size among the fly¬ 
ing phalangers. Its habits 
are nocturnal, so that by day 
it is easily captured, and it is 
greatly esteemed by the na¬ 
tives for food. 

The Australian Ariel mountain kangaroo {Petrogale xanihopus). 

(.Petauristus , or Belideus bre- 

w'ceps,) is smaller, but otherwise is very much the same as the ariel. 

The Yellow-bellied Petaurist ( Belideus flaviventer) is arboreal, and awk¬ 
ward and helpless when on the 
ground. Its soft short fur is chin¬ 
chilla-like, and added to the savori¬ 
ness of its flesh subjects it to many 
an attack from the natives of New 
South Wales. 

The Flying Mouse, Little 
Petaurist, or Opossum Mouse 

(.Acrobata pygmoea ), is about the size 
of our common mouse, and when 
at rest its white-trimmed umbrella 
is folded away so as to result only 
in undulations of white fur. It is 
not a real flyer, the parachute lend¬ 
ing temporary support and not 
being usable as wings; the peculiar 
feathering of its tail increases its 
resemblance to that of a bird. It enriches the fauna of New South Wales. 

The Beaked Tarsipes ( Tarsipes rostratus) , of Australians noticeable as an 
insect-feeder. Its coat of gray is striped like Magruder’s pantaloons, save that it 

wears three black stripes, not one. Doromp i pc 

The most common species of bandicoots m Australia are. Perameles 
Macroura and Perameles Obesula, and they require no description since the 


BANDED BANDICOOT. 



472 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


mere name is sufficient for those who read of life in that Oceanic continent. 
The species in New Guinea are named Perameles Doreyanus and Perameles 
Longicaudatus. 

The Pig-footed Bandicoot ( Chcerops castanotis ) belongs to South Aus¬ 
tralia, and differs only in the skill with which it builds its nest in the under¬ 
brush. 

The Banded Bandicoot ( Perameles fasciata) is Australian in habitat and 
very peculiar in its appearance. Its arched, mouse-like body is covered with 
alternate yellow and black hairs, and its hind-quarters are accentuated by toler¬ 
ably broad bands of black. The tail is mouse-like except for the black hair 
that covers the upper portion. Its legs and feet look as if they had been bor¬ 
rowed from some one of the tribe of birds; its ears are large and erect, and 
its head reaches a sharp point in its descent into a snout. 

The Long-nosed Bandicoot ( Perameles nasuta ) is prevailingly brown in 
color, although the upper parts are shaded with black, and its sides exhibit a 
tendency to purple. The bandicoots move about with a gait which seems to be 

a compromise between a walk 
and a jump, but which carries 
the animal along quite rapidly, 
although not very gracefully. 

Hunting the kangaroo is an 
exciting sport because of the 
remarkable fleetness and endur¬ 
ance of the animal—a run of 
eighteen miles not being consid¬ 
ered unusual. Among hunters 
the kangaroo is pursued by kan¬ 
garoo-dogs, a special breed trained 
for the purpose. These do not 
escape unharmed, for although 
the kangaroo is timid by nature, 
it lends emphasis to the warn¬ 
ing “Beware the fury of a 
patient man.” If near water, it will plunge in and, if followed by the 
dogs, deliberately seize them and drown them by holding them under water with 
its hind feet. If on land it will get a tree at its back and fence most danger¬ 
ously with its hind feet. If the hunter be on foot, it will disregard the dogs 
and make an attack upon the man. By th’e Dingos it is captured not only by 
means of pitfalls, nets, and snares, but in a manner having some resemblance 
to an ambuscade. Forming themselves into large parties, the natives will sur¬ 
round a herd of kangaroos, and then some of them advancing and throwing 
their spears will drive the frightened animals almost into the arms of another 
party lying in concealment, which in turn will drive them in some other direction, 
until finally the whole of the herd has been killed. Often when hotly pursued, 
the kangaroo has been known to deliberately throw its young into the bushes, 
so that they at least might escape. 

The Bridled Kangaroo ( Macropus frcenatus) and the Crescent Kangaroo 

(Macropus lunatus ) belong to the long-nailed kind and differ from each other and 
from the species which will be described later, as the type unguifer , simply in 
coloring. 



LONG-NOSED BANDICOOT. 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


473 



The Papuan Kangaroo (Macropus papauna ) is of interest to the naturalist 
because its discovery upset the conviction that the fauna of New Guinea included 
no represent¬ 
ative of the 
family. 

The An- 
telope Kan¬ 
garoo {Hal- 
maturus anti- 
lopinus ) is 
large but 
takes its 
name rather 
from its deer¬ 
like skin. It 
belongs to 
Australia. 

The Brush 

Kangaroo brush kangaroos. 



(.Helmatu rus 

bennettii ) is Tasmanian, and valuable alike for its flesh and its covering. 

The Nailed Kangaroo (Macropus unguifer ) is a typical variety of the 

smaller kangaroos, 
whose tail seems to 
be supplied with at 
least a rudimentary 
nail. It is found in 
the Austro-Malayan 
Islands and illus- 
trates transitions of 
form. 

The Great Kan¬ 
garoo, or Giant 
Kangaroo {Macropus 
major ), belongs t o 
New South Wales, 
and is quite graceful 
when making its im¬ 
mense leaps of as 
much as twenty feet. 
It is warmly clad in 
brown yellow hair, 
and attains the height 
of six or seven feet. 
Like the rest of its 
tribe, when leaping, 
it does not use its 
fore lees but iumps like men in a sack-race. It has a special adaptation 
of its incisor teeth which enables it to clip the thinnest blades of grass as 


GIANT KANGAROO. 















474 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




though they were cut by shears. The natives in hunting it use no weapon 
but a club, although the kangaroo , if desperate, will sometimes seize dog or 
man in a bear-like embrace, while it uses its hind feet as feed-cutters. 

The Whal- 
labee (.Macropus 
ualabatus ) is quite 
numerous in New 
South Wales, and 
attains very great 
size. Like the 
Tasmanian 
Whallabee {Hal- 
maturus b illar- 
dieri) and the 
Padlemon of 
New South 
Wales (. Halma - 
turns thetidis) , it 
is gregarious and 
lives in large 
herds. The 
Woolly Kan¬ 
garoo {Macropus 
laniger) is often 
called the Red 
Kangaroo. This 
species uses its 
seems to depend 


HUNTING THE KANGAROO WITH BOOMERANG. 


tail simply as the third leg of a tripod, but when jumping 
entirely upon its 
legs. 

The Rock 
Kangaroo (Pe- 
tr.ogale penicil¬ 
latus ) can run 
up and down the 
precipitous rocks 
as if he were a 
monkey,but 
sometimes sacri¬ 
fices himself by 
basking in the 
sun, possibly 
occupied with 
fancies compared 

to which “ The ZEBRA WOLVES PURSUING A KANGAROO. 

Reveries of a 

Bachelor” would be the baldest prose, and the idyls of celebrated poets but 
unsuccessful attempts to give to airy nothings a habitation and a name. 

The Hare Kangaroo (. Lagorchestis leporoides') has a short muzzle, close 







THE LIVING WORLD. 


475 




curly hair and very handsome markings. The upper coat is some hue result¬ 
ing from combining white and black and cream color; the feet are variegated, 
and each eye, as well as the neck, is circled with some shade of yellow. It 
“ squats in a form,” 
and from its rapid¬ 
ity when moving, 
furnishes as much 
sport as the “ regu- 
lation British 
hare.” It is very 
successful as a 
leaper, whether the 
jump be a stand¬ 
ing one, a running 
one — on a level, 
or straight up into 
the air. 

The Hare 
Kangaroo of New 
Guinea {Dorcops is 
luctuosus ) is a mel¬ 
ancholy little crea¬ 
ture, about twenty banded ant-eater. 

inches in length. 

It is of an ashen color, having the hair on its throat combed forward, frill-like. 

The Burned Tree- 
Kangaroo {Dendrologus 
inustus ) is noticeable for an 
appearance of having been 
partially singed, and of hav¬ 
ing survived to tell the tale, 
as well as to wear a tail. 

The Great Red Kan¬ 
garoo Rat {Aipriprymnus 
rubescens) is hunted in New 
South Wales for its flesh. 

Mueller’s Hare Kan¬ 
garoo {Darcopsis muelleri) 
is small, chocolate-c o 1 o r e d , 
neck hair pointing forward, 
and an inhabitant of Mysol. 

The Kangaroo Rat 
[Hypsiprymnus murinus) in 
temper and appearance re- 
zebra wolf. sembles the smaller kanga- 

roos, but its movements are 

those of a rat whose legs have not been built on a uniform pattern. It 
would be harmless except for its inability to resist the temptations of a potato 


hill or a melon patch. 




476 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



The Tree Kangaroo (Dendrologus ursinus) has fur so dark as to take its 
name from the black bear, and a tail so long and stout as to insure his 
remaining on a tree so long as he cares to do so, all that is necessary is to 
retain his balance. 

The Banded Ant-Eater (Myrmecobius fasciatus ) is pouchless, but has long 
hair which serves as a coverlet for the young. Its fur is mostly brown, growing 
black as it approaches the haunches, yellowish-white on the under portions of 
the body, and fawn-colored on the shoulders; the back is ornamented by 
numerous white stripes running crosswise. It has the tongue as well as the 

palate of the 
ant-eater; i s 
easily domesti- 
cated and 
makes quite 
a pretty-look¬ 
ing pet. Its 
habitat is the 
western coast 
of Australia. 

Phasco- 
gale, the Ta- 
poa, Tafa, 
Brush-tailed 
Phascogale 
(Phas cogal e 
penicillatus ), is 
a beautiful but 
deceptive little 
creature. 11 
dresses in 
long, s o ft, 
woolen fnr, 
gray above 
and white be¬ 
low. The tail 
is half the 
length of the 
body and the 

tasmanian devii. ( Dasyurus ursinus ). greater part 

of it is covered 

by black hair, which at the tip culminates into a tuft. The phascogale can 
climb anything but a smooth wall, is fearless, bloodthirsty, and always rapa¬ 
cious. It is arboreal in its habits, and is somewhat “ handy with its flippers” 
in its own defence. It belongs to Australia. 

The Pouched Mouse (Antechinus apicatus) has a rudimentary pouch, and 
a rudimentary tail. It is insectivorous, and like the Yellow-footed Pouched 
Mouse {Antechinus flavipes ) is very common in New South Wales and in 
Australia. Both of these pouched mice are about the size of the common 
house-mouse, and are arboreal. The yellow-footed species is dark gray above, 






THE LIVING WORLD. 


4 77 




chestnut on the sides, and white on the under parts of the body. The Woolly 
Dasyure (. Antechinomys lanigera ) belongs to Central Australia where its three- 
inch body, and five-inch tail are frequently seen. It is mouse-colored above 
and white below, and has a tuft of wool as the crowning glory of its tail. 
The pouch is lacking, and the mammae rudimentary. 

The Tasmanian Devil ( Diabolus , or Dasyums ursinus ,) has finally been greatly 
reduced in number to the gratification of the farmers of Van Dieman’s Land. 
Although smaller than the 
Tasmanian wolf, its stout¬ 
ness, pugnacity and un¬ 
reasoning ferocity render 
it worthy of its name. It 
dresses in black, relieving 
any sombreness by stripes, 
bands, or spots of white. 

It is doubtless the most 
uniformly ill-tempered 
creature in the animal 
world, as rage seems to 
be its normal condition. 

The fact that in the dif¬ 
ferentiations of species it 
went one way while the 
kangaroo went another is zebra wolves hunting. 

to be noted. 

The Zebra Wolf, or Dog-headed Opossum (Tkylacynus eynocephalus), is not 
strictly an opossum, for its hind feet lack thumbs, the tail is hairy and non-prehensile, 
and it has too few incisor teeth in each jaw. It is called the Tasmanian wolf, the 

Australian tiger, the Zebra wolf, 
and the Australian hyena. It is 
carnivorous like the wolf, to which 
it has many other resemblances. 
Its body slopes forward in con¬ 
sequence of its hind legs being 
longer than the fore legs; its 
elongated thick muzzle is almost 
cylindrical, its tail broad at the base 
tapers to a point, and it dresses 
itself in gray indulging, however, 
in black stripes across its back and 
hind legs. It is very destructive 
dasyure. to flocks and is hence a^^thing 

but a favorite with farmers. Its 
digestion is sufficiently remarkable to admit of its competing with the goat, 
or the ostrich, since it has been known to eat the porcupine, quills and all. 
The animal is nocturnal in its habits and specially particular about making 
its home wherever the light of day cannot penetrate. The animal has only 
rudimentary marsupial organs. 

The Dasyure (Dasyurus viverrimus) is regularly dark-brown inclining to 











478 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


black with irregular white spottings. It is a nocturnal animal, lives in the 
hollows of trees, and takes its name from the fact that its tail is hairless as 
well as non-prehensile. 

EDENTATES. 



The Edentata show a great advance in organization and have an intestinal 
placenta, a distinct nervous system, and a larger sized brain. They are desti¬ 
tute of front teeth as well as of other teeth. The wide differences between the 
animals belonging scientifically to this class has special interest because it 
illustrates the many accidental variations of an evolutionary scheme. 

The Edentata, or Toothless Animals, include the armadillos, the sloths 
and the ant-eaters. The Megatherium is the fossil representative of the family 
and exhibits characteristics which fit it for being the common ancestor of 
progeny whose appearance, structure and habits render them as unlike as blonde 

and brunette color¬ 
ing, or the differ- 
e n c e s of tempera¬ 
ment exhibited by 
different memb e r s 
of a human house¬ 
hold. In number 
and structure the 
teeth of the mega¬ 
therium will be found 
identical with those 
of the sloth, but 
they are four-sided 
or prism-like in form. 
The long legs ended 
in feet whose size 
might suit the mas¬ 
todon. This fact is 
understood that the 
family had not yet 
been reduced in size 
peba, or nine-banded armadiixo ( Tatusia novemcinda). and in appetite suf¬ 

ficiently for it to 

live in a tree. The fossil armadillo, Glyptodon, has been named Macro- 
therium, Limognitherium and Ancylotherius. 

The Peba ( Tatusia novemcinda) is nine-banded (sometimes eight-banded) 
and is the only armadillo in the United States. The Eight-banded Peba 
(Tatusia odocinda ) differs only in the number of its bands. 

TheTatons, or Giant Armadillos {Priadonta gigas) , are represented in South 
America by five species : the Cachecames , the Cabassous, the Apars, the Priadonta 
and the Enconbettes. Like the other members of his family, he never takes his 
armor off, nor doffs his helmet. The mail on his -body consists of bands of 
shell which admit of the greatest freedom of motion; he carries a triangular 
headpiece, or a large buckler on his shoulders, and a carapace over his haunches, 
while his tail is supplied with a series of bony outside rings. His feet are 
built upon the principle of a steam-plough so that when the armadillo starts for 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


479 


the subterranean regions nothing but smoke is fast enough to catch him. Its 
body is upward of three feet long, and the tail adds another foot and a half. 
The tail is used by the natives as a trumpet, but whether as a symbol of “the 
last trump” is doubtful, as the taton will disinter bodies unless the graves are 
walled. As a burrower the taton would “ put to the blush” Shakespeare’s mole¬ 
like ghost. 

The ordinary Armadillo, or Poyou ( Dasypns sexcinctus ), is relatively small, 
not exceeding a foot and three-quarters. It is tireless as a scavenger, and of 
great service in the hot countries where it lives. The Armadillo of the 
Pampa ( Tatusia tricinda , A par a, or Mataco,) is diurnal in its habits, and is 
protected by armor, of which only three bands on the body are solid, so that 
the armadillo can readily roll itself into a ball when needing protection. The 
Tatouhon ( Tatusia septemcinda ) or seven-banded Peba , is in size intermediate 



pichiciago—two-thirds i.ife size (Chlamydophorus tmncatus). 


between the common armadillo and the “giant.” The Pichey Armadillo ( Tatusia 
minuta ), can live for long periods without requiring water. The Tatoway 
(Xenurus unicindus) is singular from wearing no armor on its tail. The 
Pichiciago ( Chlamydophorus tmncatus) is the Chilian armadillo. The tail-piece 
suggests that the original plan was suddenly given up, and a piece of armor 
used to conceal the incompleteness. The body, except the head, back and 
haunches is furred like that of the mole. . . f 

The Collared Sloth ( Bradypus torquatus, or tnadadylus,) is, m point ol 
size, the leading member of the three-toed sloths. It is covered with long, 
orange-colored hair, which changes to yellow on the top of the head, to red or 
reddish gray on the breast, and to black in the wide collar which graces its 
neck. Its head, like that of its family, is relatively small and quite lound, 












THE LIVING WORLD. 


480 




three-toed sloth. 


and its black face is clear-shaven. His long claw-armed legs are so joined to 
his skeleton as to render it easy for. him to hang without effort with his face 

to the sky and his back 
to the ground ; his col¬ 
oring, likewise, so in¬ 
creases his invisibility 

as to suggest another 
adaptation of the crea¬ 
ture to its environment. 
Its home is in the tree- 
top, and it will never 
descend unless starva¬ 
tion drives it to a new 
source of supplies. Its 
paws have great 

strength, and if the ani¬ 
mal is attacked by a 
dog while it is on the 
ground it will turn upon 
its back, and if it once 
succeeds in getting hold of the dog it will squeeze and claw it to death. The 

sloth * is nocturnal, and while not preternaturally frisky, even then manifests 

more signs of life 
than during the 
day. When 
struck, it moans, 
but gives no other 
evidences of re¬ 
sentment. The 
sloth has become 
a symbol for sheer 
laziness, and 
whatever may be 
the unknown mis¬ 
sion of its life, 
has been less 
misrepresented 
than many an¬ 
other animal, 
such, for instance, 
as the lion or the 
birds in the wild- 


The Ai (Arc- 
topithecus ai , or 
fl accidus ,) dis¬ 
turbs the silence 

and increases the weirdness of the Brazilian forests by its oft-repeated cry of 
ai , <zz, ai. The at is a three-toed sloth, grayish-brown in color and streaked on 


three banded armadillo ( Tolypentes tricinctus). 












THE LIVING WORLD. 


481 




the back. Its coloring, together with the algae which abound upon it, serves 
as an assistance to that power of making itself invisible, though present, which 
is a characteristic of the whole sloth family. Thus identified in color with the 
tree, which it has selected, there is required an experienced eye to discern the 
ai. If missiles are thrown at it, it will patiently endure its punishment, 
having learned that “it is bet¬ 
ter to bear the ills we know, 
than suffer those we know not 
of.” The hunters shoot off the 
branch, and as the ai clutches 
like Macbeth at the empty air, 

Its whereabouts is no longer 
an unbetrayed secret. As the 
ai and other sloths feed upon 
leaves they can well afford to 
pass their time “up a tree” 
and let more grasping crea¬ 
tures energize for a living. It 
is known that a family of 
sloths passed several years 
without once coming down 
from the tree of which they 
had taken possession. This 

close confinement seems the giant armadillo. 

more wonderful, if we bear in 

mind that the sloth does not roost, or, like the marten, live in nests, but that 
it hangs by its claws to the branches, letting its back and the full weight of its 

body remain without support. It has been 
said that the more miserable the conditions 
of life the more strongly do creatures cling 
to it, and this truth is strikingly illustrated 
in the case of the sloth. Its existence seems 
sufficiently limited to furnish no exciting 
pleasures, and yet the creature displays not 
simply the greatest tenacity of life, but the 
greatest power of resisting all efforts of the 
grim reaper—Death. Possibly the Moham¬ 
medan heaven, to which alone it can look 
forward, seems to promise nothing that 
cannot be obtained on earth. The sloth, as 
a rule, lives alone—at times, in a family 
group; he is apathetic in his passions and 
affections, as well as in his individual 
desires. It is too phlegmatic to be com- 
two-toed seoth. bative, but if forced to act in self-defence 

throws itself upon its back and endeavors 
to embrace and strangle its adversary. He is the very type of the ennuyed, 
monosyllabic, empty-pated “ blarsted Britisher;” nothing can excite in him 
any surprise or interest, and no suffering seems to exert more than a moan of 


31 


482 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




astonishment at so unseemly an interruption of the dolce far niente of so 
harmless a being. Dicken’s fat boy, “Joe,” was not so unruffled, so wholly 
limited to the pleasures of eating and sleeping as is the sloth. In this rushing, 

bustling, unresting age of ours, 
one can almost find relief by 
giving himself to a few mo¬ 
ments of comradeship with the 
sloth, even though the sloth be 
in the pages of a book—for the 
sloth is quite as much alive 
there as in his natural condition. 
Walt Whitman wanted to “ lean 
and loaf,” but it would be much 
more restful to buy a sloth 
and watch its entire contentment 
with a masterly inactivity. As 
has been said, the ai makes night 
musical by uttering from time 
to time the most hair-raising 
and supernatural moans or cries, 
which sound as if a lost spirit 
was writhing in extreme agony, 
or as if some demented creature, 
uttering the most lugubrious 


great ant-bear ( Myrmecophaga jubata). 


forest, was otherwise 


lost in the pathless 
lamentations. 

The Two-toed Sloth, 
called the Unau ( Cholccpus 
didactylus) when of the Bra¬ 
zilian species, and the Cen¬ 
tral American Two-toed 
Sloth {Cholccpus hoffmanni ), 
save the waste of energy 
required even in uttering a 
moan. The unau is about 
two and a half feet in length, 
and is grayish-brown in color¬ 
ing. It is quite a remarkable 
climber, wearing the soles of 
its feet upon the inside. Lo¬ 
comotion on the ground is 
very laborious, as the unau 
has to lie on its back and 
pull itself along in a hand¬ 
over-hand fashion. 

The Great Ant-eater, or 
Ant-bear {Myrmecophaga ju¬ 
bata), is a queer-looking creature covered with long brown hair which at times 
is sprinkled with white or gray. From the throat a singular blank triangular 

Its tail is so liberally provided with long hair 


GREAT ANT-EATER AND ARMADILLO LORICATA. 


with 

band runs across the shoulders. 



THE LIVING WORLD. 4 8 3 

that th z. ant-bear uses it for an umbrella whenever it wishes to sleep under 
cover. Its great size (five to seven feet),- its long, curved beak, its feet so 
little suited for rapid locomotion, all unite to render the animal noticeable even 
though not handsome. It is not unfrequently called the tamanoir. 

The Tamandu ( Tamandua tetradactyla ) is smaller, its hair is not allowed 
to be so long and unkempt, and the fore-shortening of its head makes it a 
much more handsome creature. The Little Ant-eater (Coclothurus didactylus) 
is arboreal and in many ways suggests the squirrel. Its tail is prehensile, it 
sits on its haunches and uses its front paws; its foot-and-three-quarters of 
length is provided with a very fine, silken fur; and like all its tribe it has a 
somewhat more than ample provision of tongue. 

Among the edentates is the Aard-vark, or Earth-hog ( Orycteropus capensis ), 
which though lacking the armor of the armadillo, is nevertheless an ant-eater 
who displays the same taste in diet, and the family skill as a grave-digger, a 
miner, and a burrower. Southern Africa, that new wonder-land, is the habitat 
of the aard-vark. It is about five feet in length, the tail representing a foot 
and three-quarters. Its 
fore legs are very power¬ 
ful and furnished with 
hoofed claws, or clawed 
hoofs. For the world of 
the ants, the aard-vark is 
a terror more real and 
dangerous than the 
prowling burglar and 
safe-blower whose praises 
are celebrated in the 
■daily papers. For with 
the coming of nightfall, 
the aard-vark sallies 
forth and with great di¬ 
rectness and singleness 
of purpose takes his way 
to some ant-hill. Once there he demolishes the walls of the structure, and 
with his viscid tongue sweeps the ants by quantities into his gluttonous 
stomach. 

The Long-tailed Manis, or Phatagin ( Mams longicauda) , is an inhabitant 
of Africa, and his armor is very beautiful while at the same time it can be 
made to serve as a weapon of offence. The fact that the long tail claims three- 
fifths of a length of five feet makes the effect of the scales all the more strik¬ 
ing. The termite is the special quarry of the manis whose methods of swallow¬ 
ing the ants has already been explained when we were considering the insects. 
Another species of manis, the Short-tailed ( pentadactyla), is found in India and 
Ceylon. It is gentle and can be converted into a pet. Both species of manis 
can burrow to the most surprising depths, which they are able to do by reason 
of their long and formidable claws. They are thus provisioned by nature to 
enable them to ravage ants’ nests, and they are armored as a protection against 
the sharp jaws of such ants as are able to destroy much larger creatures than 
the manis. 



LONG TAILED MANIS. 




484 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


The Tricuspid Pangolin ( Mam's tricuspis ) is African in its habitat, and 
has three rows, each seven-banded. .The Giant Pangolin (. Pholidotus giganteus) 
is about five feet in length, is armored throughout, and flourishes greatly on 
African soil. The Indian Pangolin (. Pholidotus indiciis ) is, likewise, a giant, 
and is represented abroad as well as at home, by the Chinese Pangolin ( Pho¬ 
lidotus dalmanni). 

RODENTIA. 

The Rodents, or Gnawing Animals (ftodentia), form a very numerous class 
of mammals, ranking, as judged by their organization, next above the edentata 
or toothless animals. Though predominantly frugivorous, or at least insecti¬ 
vorous, they, in some species, have learned to become omnivorous. This state¬ 
ment furnishes the most suitable occasion for the remark, that the habits of 
animals, as well as of human beings, are greatly modified by long-continued 
civilization, so that none but a naturalist would at all times suspect a com¬ 
mon ancestry. Hence, the reader must, so 
far as he can, divest himself of prejudices 
based upon an acquaintance with an animal 
in its domesticated state only, and leave his 
mind free and unbiased for the considera¬ 
tion of evidence, which it is the office of 
The Living World to submit. If one 
stops to reflect he will at once appreciate 
the many and marked differences between 
the best type of the American and the 
representatives of the Caucasian race who 
inhabit northern Africa; nay, he will at 
once appreciate the wide differences which 
distinguish the dweller on the northern 
Atlantic coast and the native of the Gulf 
States. Hence, he will be ready to see 
that the habitudes, resulting from long- 
continued domestication, will utterly sepa¬ 
rate an animal from his congeners, whose 
lives and hereditary traits know nothing beyond the savage freedom of their 
natural state. But, still again, the rodents emphasize the fact that variety 
in the midst of unity lends strength to the scientific hypothesis of evolution, 
while relating this «to the Genetic account of the creation. Finally, the 
succession, in order of time, strengthens the position that each class appears 
when the earth is ready for its services, and becomes extinct when the work 
which it had to perform has been completed. This extinction, be it noted, is 
like the creation of a new class or species, not accomplished by some sudden 
suspension of the laws which a beneficent and all-wise Creator has assigned to 
the inhabitants of our earth as the normal manifestations of their life. Hence, 
while we can even now find fossil progenitors of the rodents , they differ from 
their progeny, and the descendants represent the greatest variety of develop¬ 
ment. Those forms of the rodents , which still serve a useful purpose in ren¬ 
dering the earth more habitable for the classes above them, and for the success¬ 
ful dominion of man, have shown an adaptability which has enabled them to 
change with the conditions surrounding them, and to continue their really 



ANT-EATER IN ATTITUDE OE DEFENCE. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


485 

beneficent work, even though its execution involved new responsibilities, and 
demanded changes in the organization of the creature itself. The rodent is 
able to live everywhere and anywhere; to adjust himself to all climates, and 
to any regimen in the matter of food; its smallness of size and disproportion¬ 
ate courage, persistence and strength fit it to take care of itself under condi¬ 
tions which would prove fatal to the largest mammals, and its duty is limited 
to no one locality, no one geological, geographical or historical period. Denti¬ 
tion, Or the structure of the teeth, is, as has been said, the accepted scientific 
standard of classification, and the rodents are evidently named, solely with refer¬ 
ence to their dental peculiarities. The rodents have no canine teeth, for these 
would be useless to them. Hence, between the incisors and the canine teeth 
there is an unfilled gap. No living rodent has more than two developed inci- 



AARD-VARK, OR EARTH HOG. 


sors in each jaw. The typical number of molar teeth is six for each jaw, 
subject to increase in certain animals. 

Furthermore, all the teeth are solidly rooted, and yet grow without limit, as 
the tooth-making supplies are perennial. The arrangement of the dentine (or 
soft material of the tooth), and of the enamel is such that, when we add 
the way in which the teeth come together, we have every condition for the 
constant presence of teeth always in good condition, and constantly, sharpened 
by contact with each other. The molars, however, grow less readily, and in 
form are specially suited to the work which they are to perform. The rodents 
develop the cerebellum at the expense of the cerebrum, whose convolutions 
and complexities are few. It follows, therefore, that, while their intelligence is 
















486 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



striking, it is an intelligence whose limits are very narrow. The stomach is 
simple in its structure, and the intestinal canal proportionately favored. I he 
provision for acute hearing, clear sight, quickness of scent, and delicacy of touch 
is as notably great as one would expect from the lives which the rodents are 
to live. To illuminate all this verbal description, let the reader think of an 
example of each of the four families—the hares, the porcupines, the rats and 
mice, and the squirrels. The one fossil rodent , (if, as many naturalists believe, 
it is a rodent ) is the Mesotherium Cristatum, belonged to the Pliocene Age, and 
dwelt in the South American Pampas. In the lower jaw, it had two small supei- 
numerarv incisors, the teeth were enamelled on all sides, and hence wore down 

more like those of 
the eqiiidcc than 
like those of living 
rodents. The mo¬ 
lars are ten above 
and eight below', 
four in the upper 
jaw and tw o in the 
low^er,being simply 
pre-molars ; they 
have no roots. 
The skull is large 
and stout; and the 
feet, though five- 
clawed, are hoof¬ 
like ; in the latter 
particular, as well 
as in the gigantic 
size of the animal, 
the height of w T hcse 
skull w r as a full 
foot, seem to re¬ 
late the mesothe- 
rium to the toxo- 
dontia . Whether 
or not the meso- 

. _ . ., therium was the 

earth hog (Orycteropus capensis). . , r ,, 

Adam of the ro¬ 
dents, it is quite certain that it represents a less differentiated type than is 
found in existing species. Its remains, like those of the monotremes , mar¬ 
supials and edentates , will interest such visitors to our museums as care to 
make real to themselves the resemblances and differences between earlier forms 
and the varieties which have been evolved from these. 

Passing now to existing rodents, we shall consider first the Leporidse, or 
Hare Family, which has the two-fossil forms of Palaeologus and Titanomys, 
corresponding to the tw^o branches of the hare family —the hares proper and 
the hare- like animals. There is an extra pair of “milk” incisors in the 
upper jaw, and the enamelling is such that the teeth do not get the edge 
which is found in rodents, other than the hares . Externally, the hares are dis- 





THE LIVING WORLD. 


487 

tinguished by length and mode of articulation of the legs, which unite to spe¬ 
cially adapt them to their leaping mode of locomotion, and to their no less 
customary squatting for concealment, or for rest. The front paws are five-fin¬ 
gered; the hind paws, four-fingered. The palms and soles are furred, and the 
paws are not used as hands. The temperate and frigid zones are, as one would 
expect, the favored habitat of the family, although species are found in south¬ 
ern Africa and India. 

HARES. 

The genus Lepus , which includes- the animals designated in common 
language by the names of hares and rabbits , is characterized by a peculiarity 
in the incisors of the upper jaw, which have behind them two smaller teeth of 
nearly the same form; by the flattened summits and transversely disposed 
plates of enamel of the grinders, of which there are six above and five below 
on each side ; by a tuft of hairs on the inside of the cheeks ; by the elonga¬ 
tion of the ears, and by the abbreviation and recurvature of the tail. 

The Common Hare, of England and the Continent of Europe {Lepus 
timidus), presents the following characteristics: the body is large, compressed 
and deep; the neck very short; the head of moderate size, convex above, 
broad and obtuse in front, the nose being depressed, the lips tumid or swollen 
and separated by a deep incision ; the eyes very large, prominent and inserted 
laterally; the ears of the same length as the head, narrow, deeply concave and 
with the tips rounded. The hind legs are much the longer and have only 
four toes, while there are five on the fore feet; the soles of all the feet are 
covered with hair; the claws are rather long, slightly arched, compressed, some¬ 
what acute, but those of the hind feet blunted in older individuals. The tail 
is very short and recurved. The fur is of two kinds, as in all the species of 
this genus ; the longer hairs are very slender at the base, enlarged towards the 
end, recurved and intermixed with still longer straight hairs ; the shorter, ex¬ 
tremely fine and tortuous. On the feet the longer hairs predominate, and are 
straightish and rather stiff, on the ears they are short; on the nape of the 
neck they are wanting. The mystachial bristles are long, faintly undulated on 
two opposite sides, disposed in several series, the lower forming a tuft; five or 
six long bristles arise over the eye and some shorter ones beneath it. The 
hair on the lower parts is longer, on the tail soft and woolly. The fore part of 
the mouth within is covered with stiffish woolly hairs. 

The upper parts are light yellowish-brown, mingled with a dusky color on 
the back and sides, and with gray on the hind quarters; the fore part of the 
neck and a portion of the breast are a dull, light yellowish-red, as are the feet 
and part of the flanks; the abdomen, inside of the thighs, and a large patch 
on the throat, are white; there is a whitish line over the eye, and a patch of 
grayish-white before it, the ears are pale yellowish-red on their anterior margin 
externally, dusky intermixed with yellowish-red on their anterior half, whitish on 
the posterior, with a patch of black at the end; internally with whitish hairs 
at the base, dusky at the middle of their posterior margin, reddish-white in 
the rest of their extent, except the margin of the tip, which is black. The 
tail is black above and white beneath, or rather behind, as it is recurved. On the 
upper parts the hair is grayish-white, sometimes pure white at the base, dusky 
beyond the .middle, and yellowish-brown at the ends ; the elongated slender hairs 
are black, but on the sides of the body and the lower parts, reddish or white. * The 


4 88 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


fur or fine hairs are white, with the extremity dusky. The length to the ends of 
the tail is about twenty-six inches, the head five, the tail three and a half, and 
the ears about four and three-fourths inches long. 

The common hare feeds entirely on vegetable substances, such as grass, 
clover, corn, turnips and the bark of young trees, sometimes inflicting great 
injury on the latter, especially in winter. Towards evening it comes abroad in 
quest of food, and continues to search for it during the night, in conformity with 
which habit, the pupils of the eyes are large and of an oblong form. It advances 
by leaps, and as its hind legs are much longer than its fore legs, it runs with 
more ease up an inclined plane than down a declivity, especially if this be 
steep. During the day it reposes in a crouching or half-sitting position in its 
form, which is a selected spot usually resorted to by it, amidst grass or ferns, 
or in the midst of shrubs. 

Its sense of seeing and of hearing are extremely acute; its eyes, being 
directly on the sides of the head, take in a wide range, and its large ears can 
be readily turned in any direction, forward, outward or backward, so as to 
catch the slightest sound. Being in a manner defenceless, and having no 
burrow or fastness to which it may retreat, it must trust to its vigilance and 
great speed to enable it to elude its numerous enemies. The excellence of its 
flesh makes it liable to be destroyed. Moreover, its frequent occurrence, extreme 
timidity and great speed, render it a favorite object of the chase. 

It is chiefly to the lower and more cultivated districts that the common 
hare resorts; but it is also found in the upland valleys, and on the slopes of 
hills at a considerable height. Timid and gentle as it is, it is by no means 
innocuous, for the injury it occasions to the young com is often considerable. In 
winter it finds an abundant supply of food in the turnip fields, and sometimes 
visits gardens at night, especially when urged by hunger during a continued 
frost. It has been observed to cross rivers by swimming, and even to enter the sea 
for the purpose of gaining an island or point of land on which food was more 
abundant. 

The female goes with young thirty days, and several times in the season pro¬ 
duces a litter of from three to five young ones, which are born covered with hair, 
having their eyes open and capable of running. The young squat in the fields, 
remaining motionless, and are with difficulty perceived. Even the old hares are 
not readily driven from their forms, in which they will sometimes remain until 
a person is quite close to them, when they at length start off, exhibiting in 
their motions the haste and perturbation of extreme fear. The timidity of the 
hare is indeed proverbial, as is its propensity to return when wounded or even 
when hunted to its usual place of repose. Besides being pursued with hounds 
and shot for pastime, it is .snared in its form or in the paths which it has made 
in the herbage. Its flesh is superior in flavor to that of the white hare or 
rabbit; and its fur is used for various purposes, especially in the manufacture 
of hats. Large individuals weigh from nine to twelve pounds ; the ordinary 
weight is about eight pounds. 

The White Hare, Variable Hare or Changing Hare (Lepus variabilis ) T is 
considerably smaller than the common hare, which, however, it resembles in 
form, although it has the ears and hind legs proportionally shorter. The num¬ 
ber of toes, and the nature of the fur are the same as in the other species; 
but the latter is softer and more woolly. In the middle of summer the head 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


489 

is reddish-brown, the lips and chin brownish-white, the ears dusky on their 
anterior half, grayish on the posterior with the tip black, the nape whitish ; 
the general color of the upper parts is dull grayish-black, intermixed with red¬ 
dish. The long hairs are gray at the base, then black, with a small portion 
of a yellowish tint, the tip black. Some of the longer hairs are entirely 
black. The fine hair or under fur is light-gray at the base, pale reddish- 
brown at the end. The tail is grayish-white. The lower parts are grayish- 
white, as are the legs over the greater part of their extent; the toes brown, 
the claws dusky. 

In September the colors begin to assume a paler tint, many of the dusky 
hairs having disappeared. I 11 October the change is farther advanced, and to¬ 
wards the end of the month the muzzle, hind neck and feet are white, though 
there are spots and patches dispersed here and there. In December the fur 
seems entirely white, but has an intermixture of long blackish hairs on the 
back; the anterior external part of the ear is brownish and its tip black. The 
under-fur is light bluish-gray at the base, pale yellowish or cream color towards 
the end. In this species the hair is almost always changing; in April and 
May there is a general but gradual shedding, after which the summer colors 
are seen in perfection; towards the middle of autumn many new white hairs 
have been substituted for colored ones, and by degrees all the hairs and fur 
are shed, and renewed before the end of December, when the fur is in the per¬ 
fection of its winter condition, being closer, fuller and longer than in summer. 

The white hare is not uncommon in the middle and northern divisions 
•of Scotland, residing in the valleys of the Grampian and other mountainous 
tracts, but not ascending the hills to their summits, although in summer it 
keeps on the ferny slopes. This species also occurs in some of the northern 
parts of England. In winter, it descends to the bottom of the valleys, but 
never visits the lower districts. It does not burrow, but conceals itself among 
the ferns or heath, often in stony or rocky places. Its flesh is whiter than 
that of the common hare, generally leaner and therefore less esteemed. It is 
said to be easily domesticated if taken young, and to exhibit less timidity and 
more playfulness than the common hare. 

The California Hare (.Lepus californiciis ) is long and slender, it has a long 
tail and ears, it is reddish-brown above, but the under parts are yellowish-white. 
The average length is less than two feet. It differs from its relatives in its 
degree of fleetness and in its timidity, in which qualities it is their successful 
rival. This hare is to be found in California and the southern part of Oregon. 

The Sage Rabbit {Lepus artemisia) from the west and from the plains of 
Mexico and Texas, cannot be satisfactorily distinguished from the last species. 

The Jackass Rabbit, or Texan Hare {Lepus callotis ), is so named from its 
very long ears, which measure about five inches, though the animal is rather 
smaller than the European hare. It is yellowish-gray above, waved irregularly 
with black; the upper part of its tail is black, sides gray, and it is a dull whitish 
below; its nap is a sooty-black. It is found in Mexico, Texas and Oregon. 
The long and slender legs indicate rapid locomotion and a capacity for making 
long leaps ; it is a solitary and not very common species, and has not been 
found in California. 

Rabbits at home will sit in their doorways even when they have been 
driven thither by the hunter. The dead are always removed from the warren 


490 


the Living world. 


by their companions. In spite of their timorousness, one of them has been 
known to kill two large rats which invaded the burrow with no good intent. 

The Tapeti, or South American Hare ( Lepus brasiliensis) , is happy in the 
possession of both hare-like and rabbit-like qualities. It is peculiar in its small 
ears, short stumpy tail, and in its littleness. It is found in Brazil and the 
adjacent countries. 

The European Rabbit, or Cony [Lepus cuniculus ), the lapin of the French,, 
is about sixteen and one-half inches long, with the tail three inches in addition, 
and the ears also are about three inches long; the tarsus is shorter than in the 
hare; the general color grayish-brown above, white below, the back of the neck 
rufous, tail white below, blackish above, but pencilled with dirty-white; ears not 
tipped with black. Compared with that of the hare, the skull has the muzzle,, 
inter-orbital space, and incisive openings narrower; the mammae are five pairs, 
two pectoral, three ventral. In the wild state the rabbit inhabits Europe except 
the more northern portion, and northern Africa. It is thought to have been 
originally from Spain, but being hardy, to have been carried to most parts of 
the world. It is easily distinguished from the hare by its smaller size, grayish 
color, and short feet and ears; it also differs from the hare in its habit of 
burrowing. 

Unable to escape from its enemies by speed, it seeks safety in deep holes 
dug in dry sandy places; living gregariously in what are called warrens, with 
an ample supply of food at hand, in places suitable for burrows, such as sandy 
heaths covered by a prickly furze. Remaining concealed during the day, they 
come out at twilight in search of food, aud often do considerable mischief by 
digging up the newly-sprouted corn and gnawing the bark from young trees. 
The warrens are often of large extent, and a source of great profit from the 
flesh and skins of the animals which are caught in snares and traps, dug or 
drowned out, or hunted with dogs and ferrets. 

They are very prolific, beginning to breed at the age of six months, and 
having several litters in a year, producing from five to eight at a time; the 
period of gestation is about three weeks, but as the uterus is double, there may 
be two distinct litters at an interval of a few days. The young are born blind 
and naked, in a nest lined with the mother’s soft fur. Rabbits are said to live 
eight or nine years. They seem to have social laws, the same burrow being 
transmitted from parents to children, and enlarged as the family increases. It 
is estimated that a single pair of rabbits would, if unmolested, become the pro¬ 
genitors of more than one million two hundred and fifty thousand of their kind. 
To check this increase there is the persecution of man, and of carnivorous 
beasts and of birds. The ravages of the rabbits are more than counterbalanced 
by their flesh, which forms a nutritious and easily digested article of food, and 
by their skins which are used in making hats and are dyed to imitate more 
expensive furs. White and gray are the prevailing colors ; in the silver-gray 
variety the hairs are white and black. 

The American Gray Rabbit, or Cotton-tail [Lepus sylvaticus) , is about 
sixteen and one-half inches to the root of the tail and twenty-six and one-half 
to the end of the outstretched legs; the fur and pads of the feet full and soft; 
on the back light yellowish lined with black, grayer on the sides; on the rump 
mixed ash, gray and black, pure white below; upper surface of tail like the back^ 
below pure cottony-white ; posterior edge of ears whitish, edges of dorsal sur- 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


491 


face toward the tip black, the rest of ashy-brown ; fur lead-colored at the base. 
This is among the largest of the short-eared leporidse of America, being the 
largest in the west and the smallest and coarsest-haired south; it is found 
almost throughout the United States, from the southern parts of New Hamp¬ 
shire to Florida, and west of the upper Missouri, being most abundant in 

sandy regions covered with pines. It also frequents woods and thickets, con¬ 

cealing itself in its form, in thick bushes, or in holes in trees or under stones 
by day, coming out at night to feed. It is fond of visiting clover and corn¬ 
fields, vegetable gardens and nurseries of young trees, where it does much 
mischief. It does not burrow like the European rabbit, and comes rather in 
the class of hares; when pursued it will run with great swiftness and with 
doublings to its hole in a tree or rock. Though it will breed in enclosed warrens, 
it does not become tame, and has not been domesticated. 

It is very prolific, or else it would be exterminated by its numerous ene¬ 
mies. It often runs into the hole of the woodchuck, skunk, fox or weasel; 

in the last three cases frequently being a victim to the carnivorous inhabitant 
of the burrow. It is hunted with dogs, shot from its form and caught in 
snares and traps; its flesh is much esteemed. It somewhat resembles the 
European rabbit in its gray color, but it does not change its dress like the 
latter; it is furthermore smaller and more slender. 

The Pikas constitute the genus of the family leporidse, which includes the 
tailless hares. The pikas have no visible tail, the ears are short and rounded, 
the hind legs short, the molars five in each corner of the mouth, the feet 
densely clothed in fur, except small naked pads at the end of the toes. The 
pikas are of small size, the largest not surpassing a Guinea-pig. They are 
found only in Alpine or sub-Alpine districts, where they live in burrows or 
among loose stones remaining quiet by day and feeding at night. The food 
consists of herbage of different kinds, which they store up in little piles in 
autumn for winter consumption. When feeding they often utter a chirping or 
whistling noise. 

The Alpine Pika (. Lagomys alpinus ) is about nine and one half inches 
long, with long and soft fur grayish next the skin ; general color above gray¬ 
ish-brown, below yellowish-gray; feet pale with a. yellowish tinge; the ears 
margined with white. It inhabits Siberia from the river Irtysch to Kamtchatlca. 

The Pigmy Pika {Lagomys pusillus), from southern Siberia and the Ural, 
mountains, is six and three-fourth inches long, of a general brownish tint 
pencilled with black and brownish-yellow ; feet and under parts yellowish-white. 

Other species'are found in Hindoostan {Lagomys ogotona), some of them 
6000 or 8000 feet above the level of the sea. 

The Rocky Mountain Pika, or Little Chief Hare {Lago?nys princeps ), is 
about seven inches long ; the general color is grayish above, yellowish-brown on 
the sides, and yellowish-white below. It is found along the Rocky Mountains 
from latitude 42 0 to 6o° north. It frequents heaps of loose stones, coming 
ont after snnset. 

The Polar Pika {Lagomys hyperboreus) is the smallest known species; 
it is only five and one-fourth inches long, grayish-brown above, tinged with 
red on the head and sides ; it lives in northeast Siberia. 

The Common Squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris ), the only species of the genus 
sciurus to be found in Great Britain, is one of the most beautiful and lively of the 


492 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


British quadrupeds. Its form is compact, its body being of moderate length, 
rather full, with the back usually arched; the neck short and thick; the head 
of moderate size, with the fore part flattened; the nose prominent; the lips 
broad; the ears of moderate size; the eyes large and prominent; the anterior 
limbs of ordinary length and muscular, with four slender toes, furnished with 
large, arched, and much compressed and acute claws, and a rudimentary inner 
toe reduced to a mere knob; the hind limbs proportionately longer, with five 
toes, and similar but shorter claws; the tail nearly as long as the body and 
head. On the fore feet the lateral toes are nearly equal and much shorter than 
the middle toes, which also are equal. On the hind feet the first toe is very 
short, the second longer than the fifth, the third and fourth longest and about 
equal. The incisors of the upper jaw are rather short and chisel-shaped; those 

of the lower much longer, narrower and 
pointed. There are five grinders in the 
upper and four in the lower jaw, on each 
side. 

When the fur is complete in autumn 
it is rather long, dense and soft, the ears 
fringed at the end with longish hairs; 
the tail bushy. The general color of the 
upper parts is brownish-red, minutely 
dotted with yellowish-gray, the hairs be¬ 
ing whitish and marked with brown; the 
tail of a darker brown with a very small 
portion of the tip whitish; the lower 
parts pure white; the feet and a band 
along the side light red. The mystachial 
bristles dark-brown. The female is smaller 
than the male, and generally of a lighter 
color. In younger individuals the color 
is redder than in adults, in which it is 
seldom destitute of a gray tinge, owing 
to the minute markings above described; 
and I have seen some in which the gray 
predominated over the red. In April and 
May the hair of the upper parts assumes a singularly faded appearance, losing its 
gloss, and assuming a light yellowish tint. In the latter month the process of 
shedding begins, to be completed by the end of June, when the ears are desti¬ 
tute of tufts. It appears that the long hairs which fringe the ears are not 
proportionally longer than the rest until November, that then they gradually 
elongate, attain their greatest length in spring, and remain unshed until June. 
In the northern regions of Europe the gray color in winter is more decided, 
and the fur denser and of finer texture. 

The agility of the squirrel ', its lively disposition and beautiful form, make it 
a general favorite. It is amusing to watch it in its arboreal excursions, when one 
sees it ascending the trunk and branches with surprising speed, running out even 
on the slender twigs, always when in motion keeping its tail depressed, occasionally 
leaping from one branch to another, and when alarmed scampering away at such 
a rate that one almost expects to see it miss its footing and fall down headlong. 








THE LIVING WORLD. 



493 

It feeds on nuts, beech-mast, acorns, buds and the bark of young branches; 
generally, while eating, sitting on its haunches with its tail elevated, holding 
the object between its paws, and dexterously unshelling the kernel, from which 
it removes the outer pellicle before munching it. It does not live all the time 
in trees, but frequently resorts to the ground, where it moves with nearly equal 
agility, leaping like a rabbit. The female produces three or four young ones 
about midsummer, which are deposited in a nest, formed of moss, fibrous roots, 
grass and leaves, curiously interwoven, and placed in a hole or in the fork 
between two branches. In autumn it lays up a store of provisions for winter,. 


bobac (Aretomys bobac). 


but usually in an irregular manner, depositing nuts in different places in the^ 
ground and in holes of trees. When the cold weather commences, it becomes 
'less active, and often dozes for days in its retreat; but it does not become 
completely torpid ; and it has been seen abroad in the midst of a most severe 
snow-storm. If the weather be comparatively mild, it exhibits its usual activity, 
feeding on barks and twigs. The squirrel may be domesticated if taken young, 
and becomes an agreeable, playful and gentle pet. It is generally distributed 
through the wooded parts of the country. 



494 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



Colorado marmot ( Spermophilus citillus ). 
yellowish-gray, with dark mottlings 


The Flying Squirrel, or Red Yaguan (, Sciuropterus volucella ), is about a 
foot in length, half of this belonging to the body, and is provided with a 
membrane on each side, which extends as far as the wrist and ankle. It is 
not truly a flyer, for the membrane acts rather as a parachute, and when the 
squirrel wishes to rise it is compelled to leap upward so as to fall downward 

at the right angle. There is also a 
European species ( Sciuropterus vo/ans). 
The largest species is the Taguan 
(.Pteromys petaurista ). 

The Scale-tailed Squirrel ( Anom - 
a/urus fraseri) is a flying squirrel, but 
the scales on its tail serve the uses of 
a fifth foot. It is African in its habi¬ 
tat, as is also another species, the 
Shining Scale-tailed Squirrel ( Anom - 
alurus fulgens). 

The Red Squirrel (Xeres hudsonius ) 
'is the American representative of the 
common squirrel of Europe. It is fre¬ 
quent in the Northern States, and is 
sometimes called the hackee , or chick¬ 
aree. 

The Bobac (. Aretomys bobac) is 
the under parts, throat and tail being 
russet, and the muzzle silver-gray. Its habitat is northern Europe and Asia, 
but it seeks lower altitudes than the alpine species. 

The Woodchuck, or Ground Hog (. Aretomys empetra ), has a great variety 
of names, not only its 
numerous popular nick¬ 
names, but also more 
than its share of scien¬ 
tific titles. One reason 
•of his various names is 
no doubt found in the 
fact that he is very 
widely distributed, for he 
is found in the Canadas, 
as far south as the Caro- 
linas, and as far west as 
the Rocky Mountains. 

The body is thick and 
squatty, and the legs 
peculiarly short. The 
body is about eighteen 

inches long, the tail about four. The color varies in different individuals. 
The woodchuck does not go far from its burrow during daylight, but after 

sundown comes out to forage, hunting for grass, fruits and vegetables, often 

doing great damage to clover fields and kitchen gardens. They are solitary in 

their habits, not forming communities of more than a single family. They 



ARCTIC MARMOT. 



\ 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


495 




“hibernate where the winter is cold, and are believed to fast during the entire 
^period of their hibernation. Their burrows are on the slopes of hillocks, often 
near the roots of a tree. They extend from twenty to thirty feet from an 
opening, rising inside into a large room, which serves as the dormitory for the 
entire family, and as a nursery for the young ones. Farmers in New England 
sometimes flood them out, some¬ 
times kill them with rifles, but 
more frequently catch them in 
steel-traps hidden by grass and 
leaves. In defending himself the 
woodchuck bites most severely, and 
is no mean adversary. Although 
his walk is plantigrade, that is, 
done on the soles of his feet, he 
occasionally climbs up trees or 
bushes to the height of a few 
feet, taking a sun-bath upon an 
outstretched limb. He cleans his 
face and smooths down his fur. 

His fur is of no value, and his 
flesh eaten only when one is pressed 
by hunger, or in search of a new 
sensation. Its taste is said to 
resemble very much that of pork, European marmot {Aretomys marmot*). 

but is more decided. The wood¬ 
chuck is called, sometimes, the Maryland, the European , or the Alpine marmot. 

The Prairie Marmot, or Prairie Dog ( Spermophilus or Cynomys ludovi- 
cianus) , sometimes called the Wish-ton-Wish, is about thirteen inches long; 
the upper parts are reddish-brown, mixed with gray and black; the under parts 

are of a dull whitish tint; it has cheek- 
pouches about three-fourths of an inch deep, 
and its body is short, thick and clumsy. It 
lives on the prairies of the Missouri and 
Platte rivers. It is found as far south, also, 
as Texas, New Mexico and the borders of 
California. In the colder parts of this region 
they hibernate, but remain active all the 
year around in the warmer localities. The 
prairie dogs are gregarious in their habits. 
They live in burrows. Before the entrance 
to each of these there is a little mound. 
The front hall slopes downward and inward, 
at an angle of about forty degrees. From 
this passages diverge sideways or upwards. At the end is a bed of dry grass. 
Several hundred of these burrows are often congregated into a village, called 
by the hunters and travellers a dog-town. The inhabitants of such a town 
often sit upon their haunches on these little mounds that form, a sort of front 
door to their burrows, surveying the landscape o’er and uttering a sharp, short 
sound, called barking. As they bark they wiggle their tails, as though to say, 







496 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


“ What a great boy am I.” If a person approaches they immediately dive into 
their holes, being notified of his arrival by the animals nearest his pathway. 
Presently a head here and there pops out, as though to discover whether the 
coast is again clear. The prairie dogs are happy-go-lucky little fellows, and 
i spend much of their time visiting and gossiping. One very curious thing about 
these dog-towns is that rattlesnakes and burrowing owls are to be found in the 
houses with the rightful owners. Though these snakes and owls seem to live 
| on good terms with the prairie dogs , there is evidence that they, at least occa- 
| sionally, devour their entertainers. This has been explained by supposing that 
they eat only such animals as die in their holes, thus performing the office of 
scavengers. The prairie dog receives its name not from its appearance but 
from the resemblance between the sound it utters and the barking of a dog. 

The Beaver (Castor fiber ) is rapidly becoming extinct, as mankind has been 
too unrelenting in the warfare which it has waged upon the creature. The 

beaver is so clever 
a builder that he 
has received at 
least his full 
share of praise. 
His carpenter’s 
outfit consists of 
chisel-shaped 
teeth, a long, 
scaled, convex, 
trowel-shaped 
tail, and webbed 
hind feet. After 
having cut down 
a tree, and used 
the same princi¬ 
ples as those of 
a Maine lumber¬ 
man, he cuts the 
wood into long, 
pointed timbers 
of small size, 
and upon these 

puts layers of stone and of mud; his dam, likewise, takes cognizance of the 
resistance with which it may be expected to meet, and has its form determined 
by the character of the stream. Having provided his dam (whose walls are not 
unfrequently several feet in thickness), he tunnels himself a residence which 
shall lie quite a distance back from the water, and which shall be provided 
with a double entrance to the water—one for. egress and the other for entrance to 
the house, and unerringly digs deep enough to suffer no inconvenience from the 
ice. Having built its house it lives upon the “ dormitory plan,” making its 
rooms of the most generous size, and arranging its beds along the walls. 

The beaver is common in the northern and north temperate latitudes of 
both Europe and America, but is very rare in the middle latitudes, and unknown 
in the south. They formerly abounded in England as far south as Berkshire, 




THE LIVING WORLD. 




TREE PORCUPINE (Cercoiabes prehensilis). 


and some persons suppose that oral tradition still survives, relating to their ex¬ 
istence in that country. Their bones are found, in some districts, in the accu¬ 
mulation of peat in the fens, and on marshy river borders. Until recently they 
were abundant in the Northern, Middle and Western States of the United States, 
as the large number of their dams, 
and of the beautiful level beaver- 
meadows, caused by the accumula¬ 
tion of soil and filling up of their 
ponds by alluvial matter, suffi¬ 
ciently indicate. The gradual 
clearing up and cultivation of the 
country has, however, banished them, 
mile after mile and day after day, 
from the haunts of intrusive and 
encroaching man, until the beaver 
is scarcely to be found at all on 
this side of the streams which have 
their springs among the roots of 
the Rocky Mountains. Even there, 
also such unwearied war do the 
wild trappers of the various fur com¬ 
panies wage against them, and so 
largely tempting have been the 
sums paid for their spoils, that they are rapidly decreasing, and may ere long 
become extinct. It has been said, however, that the application of silk to the 
manufacture of hats, and the large use made in late years of plain felt, by 
causing a very material fall in the price of beaver has procured them such a 

respite, that they are again 
becoming numerous in 
places where they were a 
few years since almost ex¬ 
tinct. 

The beaver colonizes 
like the ancient Greeks 
and the modern Europeans. 
The old move up stream 

where living is more plen¬ 

tiful, and the young gp 
down stream, but the origi¬ 
nal home always retains 
tenants. When it builds 
an island lodge, it makes 
one straight, ascending 
pathway, and a second sinuous and abruptly descending. The bank lodges 
have already been described. The California beaver makes no dams: the 
Missouri beaver constructs slides on the banks. When building dams the 

beaver walks, on its hind legs and carries the stone pressed against its breast. 

When the wood is at any distance it builds canals twenty-five feet in width 
and three in depth and “ rafts its lumber.” 

32 



498 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


The Boomer, or Mountain Beaver (. Haplodon rufus ), is substantially 
tailless, lives inland, and burrows in the dry land. Its habitat is Oregon, 
Washington and California. It adds to our illustrations of the changes which 
animals undergo to adapt them to their environment. 

PORCUPINES, CAVIES, AGOUTIS, AND OTHER RODENTS. 

The two sub-families of the hystricidce , or porcupines , are the cercolabma 
and hystricina. The cercolabina is confined to America, and the latter is spread 
over the old world. In both sub-families, the collar bones are nearly perfect, 
attached to the sternum but not to the shoulder blade; the eye cavities are 
very large; the forehead very broad; the cheek bones destitute of an angular 
process on the lower margin ; the molars four in each side of the upper jaw, 
and four in each side of the lower jaw; the dorsal vertebrae usually fourteen, 
and the lumbar, four; the feet short, body more or less armed with spines or 
quills, capable of being raised by muscles under the skin. The cercolabma 
live almost entirely in trees, and their feet have generally only four equal toes 
with long compressed and curved claws; there are sometimes five toes on the 
hind feet; the soles are thickly studded with small flattened warts; the skull 

short and broad, with a minute lachrymal 
bone forming no part of the lachrymal canal; 
the palate between the molars is on a lower 
level than the anterior portion; the molars 
converge in front, and are distinctly rooted, 
each having a fold of enamel on either side, 
the worn crown presenting two deep transverse 
cavities surrounded by enamel; incisors small; 
anterior and posterior clinoid processes want¬ 
ing. This sub-family contains the genera 
erethizon , cercolabes and choetomys. The genus 
erethizon has a non-prehensile tail, short, thick, 
flattened, covered at the base above with 
hairs and spines, and on the under side and at the apex with stiff bristles; 
nostrils close together; feet short and broad; toes four or five, with long curved 
claws; hind feet with a distinct inner toe with claw, without any projecting 
semicircular lobe on the inner side; upper lip slightly notched, but with no 
naked mesial line; body stout and covered with a long and dense fur from 
which the spines project, limbs short-and strong. 

The Capybara ( Hydrochoerus capybara) abounds in South America; it is 
killed for its flesh, is persecuted in the water by the crocodile, and hunted upon 
land by the jaguar, so that it must often wonder whether life is worth living. 
It is about the size of a sheep, has a large mouse-like head, small, round 
ears, great black eyes, a nose set off with formidable whiskers, a short neck, 
short legs, a coarse covering of russet hair. When in motion it has the 
appearance of a prize hog, but when seated on its haunches it looks like 
nothing but itself. 

The Patagonian Cavy (. Dolichotis patagonica) is a burrowing animal, but 
sometimes takes possession of the excavations made by other creatures, instead 
of constructing its own home. It is found, sometimes, a long way from its 
retreat; two or three generally go together on these rambles. In its manner 



European hedgehog (Erinaceus europczus'). 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


499 


of running it imitates the rabbit; but in spite of its long limbs it is not par¬ 
ticularly fleet. Once in a while, though not very often, it squats down to rest 
It is ever on the lookout for enemies, yet bold enough to seek its living by 
daylight. It is easily distinguishable from other cavies by its long and well- 
developed eyelashes. It generally produces twins, whose cradle is the parental 
burrow. When its flesh is cooked, its whiteness makes it look very inviting, 



PATAGONIAN CAVY. 


but experiment diminishes its attractiveness, by proving the flesh dry and almost 
flavorless. A careless observer might mistake this animal for a hare, on 
account of its long legs, long cocked-up hairs and diminutive tail. It is much 
larger than the hare and weighs from twenty to thirty pounds. Its fur is 
pleasant to the touch, brown on the back and fawn-colored upon the sides. It 
is found in such parts of Patagonia as have a desert character, and these 
rodents hopping one after another give life to a rather dreary landscape. 








500 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



The Guinea Pig is no pig at all, neither does it come from Guinea, but from 
Guiana. When eating it generally sits upon its haunches and uses its fore 
paws as if it was a squirrel. It is pretty to the eye, and readily domesticated, 
but as a pet it is dull and uninteresting. Its usual coloring is red, white and 
black (not blue as one might expect from the combination) ; these colors are 
distributed in irregular patches. 

The Restless Cavy ( Cavia aperea , or Cobaye aperea ,) the Cochon d’Inde 
of Buffon ; the Ferkel-maus of the Germans, is sometimes, from the peculiar 
sound it utters, called the coui-coui. About the size of a rat, it is far less grace¬ 
fully proportioned, being thick, clumsy, short-legged and tailless. The fur is 
long and somewhat coarse, the pencilling of that on the upper portions of the 
body is black aud dull yellow. It inhabits the banks of the Rio de la Plata 
and is common in the vicinity of some of the towns located upon that river. 
It is found in Paraguay, Bolivia and Brazil. It prefers to dwell in marshy 
places, beautified by the green leaves of aquatic plants; but occasionally lives 

in sand hillocks or in the hedge¬ 
rows. Wherever the soil is dry it 
makes burrows, but where the her¬ 
bage is luxurious it lives con¬ 
cealed among the leaves. It is 
gregarious in its habits, forming 
little communities of from six 
to fifteen individuals, who break¬ 
fast very easily, do without dinner, 
eat their supper at sun-down, and 
never stray far from home. It 
breeds but once a year and then 
has but one or two young. 

The Bolivian Mountain 
Cavy ( Cavia boliviensis ) is al¬ 
ways found at a considerable 
distance above the sea-level. In 
this respect it is totally differ- 
agouxi and cafybaka. ent from the cavia aperea which 

is to be found only in low lands. 
The Bolivian cavy called the cavia flavidens is very abundant in the plains 
around Lake Titicaca. 

The Southern Cavy ( Cavia australis ) may be found in Paraguay to the 
Straits of Magellan. It is a lively little creature, but its timidity saves it 
from too much self-assertion. It makes itself a home near the habitations of 
man, but spends most of its time in deep burrows, made in sandy places, 
protected by shrubs. 

The Paca ( Celogenys paca ), often called the brown paca , once lived in the 
West Indies, but now seems to be found only in Brazil and the neighboring 
countries. It looks thick-set and clumsy, but surprises the spectator by its 
prompt and sudden movements. Its general color is blackish-brown, variegated 
by four rows of parallel spots beginning at the shoulders and reaching back to 
the haunches. The tail is greatly abbreviated. The length of the body is 
about twenty-one inches; the height about a foot. The paca likes to live in 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


501 


damp forests, and where he can conveniently reach the water. He digs a bur¬ 
row, which has so thin a roof as to form a pitfall for the unwary traveller, 
whose feet crushing through it drive the unprepared host from house and 
home. These burrows generally have the entrances closed by doors of dry 
leaves and branches. The hunters who hope to catch their prey alive, stop up 
two of these exits and dig into the third. When the citadel is reached, the 
hapless animal fights the besiegers with teeth and claws, only to be captured 
at the last. Like the cat it washes its face and whiskers with its fore-paws, 
but unlike pussy it does not hate to enter the water, for it swims and dives 
with great skill. Its food consists of fruits and tender plants. It is nocturnal 
in its habits, for its eyes are not able to bear the full effulgence of the king 
of day. It has a sweet tooth, and sugar-cane plantations suffer from its love 
of good things. When it is not asleep it is eating, and when asleep it lies in 
a soft little bed which it spares no pains to make comfortable, even luxurious. 
In spite of its laziness it is cleanly and well-bred. Its flesh is prepared in 
the same way, and tastes like that of a suckling-pig. The female, at a birth, 
produces but one, which remains with her 
for a long time. The breeding-time falls 
in the rainy season. The paca is said to 
be possessed of small intelligence but 
favored with fine instincts. In captivity 
it is quiet and contented. 

The Agouti is a deer, bearing some 
slight resemblance to a pig. Its head 
and form are moose-like, its legs slender, 
its ears short, but open, its tail lacking, 
or represented by the merest stump. The 
Yellow-rump Agouti (. Dasyprocta 

aguti ) is quite abundant. The Agouti 
Acouchy ( Dasyprocta acouchy ) is distin¬ 
guished by quite a long tail. The Yel¬ 
low-rump Agouti is brown, which grows lighter in shade, and even approaches 
white on the breast and belly, and becomes yellow or almost golden upon 
the rump. The hair is long and, as the animal has no tail, it falls over the 
hind quarters like a carefully adjusted bed-spread or valance. It is nocturnal 
in its habits, and its motions are marked by grace and quickness. It can swim, 
but it cannot dive; it is sometimes called the South American rabbit, but 
really belongs to the Guinea or Guiana pigs. It has the family appetite, 
which is distinguished by voracity rather than delicacy. In eating it uses 
its front paws, after the fashion of the squirrel, and plays such havoc with 
the crops that the planter is always waging war against it. 

The Crested, or European Porcupine (. Hystrix cnstata ), is found m 
southern Europe, where it has come from northern and western Africa, it is 
about twenty-eight inches long, the tail about eight more. The muzzle is large 
and obtuse, sparingly clothed with small, dusky hairs, with scattered longer 
and coarser ones on the upper lip; the anterior and under parts and limbs 
with spines not more than two inches long, with which are mixed some coarse 
hairs; it has a crest of numerous very long bristles, extending from the crown 
to the back and curving backward; the hind parts of the body and tail are 



striped paca. 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


5°2 

covered with quills, some slender and flexible, others shorter, stouter and very 
sharp There are a few on the tip of the tail. The prevailing color is brownish- 
black, with a white band on the fore part of the neck. This is the pore epic 
of the French, the spiny pig, so-called from its heavy, pig-like look and its 
grunting voice. It lives in rocky crevices or in burrows, becoming torpid m 
winter; the food consists of various vegetable substances, and its flesh is well 
flavored. It can erect its quills at pleasure, but cannot discharge them. Be¬ 
sides its grunts it makes a rattling noise by shaking the tuft of hollow quills 
on its tail; when angered it also strikes the ground with its feet. 

The Nepaul Porcupine [Hystrix hodgsoni ) has no crest, and is covered 
chiefly with spiny bristles with long, hair-like points, and the quills are rather 
black than white. It is very abundant in the sub-Himalayan region, and very 
mischievous, digging up potatoes and other root crops. It is monogamous and 
has two young at a birth. Its flesh is very delicate and is eaten by all classes, 
even by the high caste Hindoos. It is easily tamed, and breeds in captivity, 

and it is considered lucky to have 
a family of them about the stables. 

The Brush-tail, or Fasciculated 
Porcupine (. Atherurus fasciculatus ), 
sometimes called the Malacca porcu¬ 
pine , is found in the Celebes Islands, 
and the Isles of the Indian Archi¬ 
pelago. The most peculiar thing 
about it is its tail. The body is 
nearly covered with spines, mostly 
white at the base and black toward 
the extremity, pointing backward 
upon all ordinary occasions; the be¬ 
ginning of the tail is also decorated 
with spines, then comes a portion 
thereof which is bare even of hairs, 
and the tail ends in a tuft or bundle 
of long flat bristles, bearing a close resemblance to narrow slips of parchment, 
slit in an irregular manner. This tuft is nearly white and about two inches 
long. The entire tail is about five inches, the body a little more than a foot 
long. The eyes are small and black, the ears short, round and naked. It 
sleeps all day, is cross and fretful, and when irritated or disturbed stamps with 
rage, erects its spines, and swells itself to its utmost size. Its intelligence is 
very limited. 

The Yellow-haired, or Prairie Porcupine ( Erethizon epixanthus ), is smaller 
than the preceding; the color is blackish-brown, the long hairs of the bod}' 
tipped with greenish-yellow; the anterior molar is considerably larger than the 
rest; it is found west of the Missouri to the Pacific Ocean. 

The Canada Porcupine ( Erethizon dorsatus) is about two and a half feet 
long, and weighs from twenty to thirty pounds. It appears larger than it 
really is from the length of the hair and spines; the fur is generally dark 
brown, soft, woolly, and grayish next the skin, coarse and bristly in some parts, 
six or seven inches long on the back, coarse hairs usually with dirty white 
points, giving to the whole a hoary tint; the spines, more or less hidden by 



AGOUTI. 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


503 


the fur, and abundant on the upper surface of the head, body and tail, are two 
or three inches long, white with dark points; the tail is about ten inches 
additional to the above length; the incisor teeth are of a deep orange color. 

It is a very clumsy animal, with much-arched back, snout thick and tumid, 
ears short and rounded, and tongue rough with scales. It is found between 
northern Pennsylvania and latitude 67° N., and to the east of the upper 
Missouri river. It is an excellent though a slow climber; is not able to escape 
its enemies by flight, but cannot be attacked even by the largest carnivora with 
impunity; dogs, wolves, the lynx, and the cougar have been known to die from 
the inflammation produced by its quills ; these are loosely attached to the skin 
and barbed at the point, so that they easily penetrate, retain their hold, and 
tend continually to become more deeply inserted; when irritated it erects its 
quills, and by a quick lateral movement of the tail strikes its enemy, leaving 
the nose, mouth and tongue beset with its darts; it has no power of shooting 
the quills. Its food consists of vegetable substances, especially the inner bark 
and tender twigs of the elm, basswood and hemlock; it seldom quits a tree 
while the bark is uneaten, except in 
cold weather, when it descends to sleep 
in a hollow stump or cave; as it kills 
the trees which it ascends, its depreda¬ 
tions are often serious. The nest is 
made in a hollow tree, and the young, 
generally two, are born in April or May. 

It is almost as large as a beaver, 
and is eagerly hunted by the Indians, 
who eat the flesh and use the quills to 
ornament their moccasins, belts, pouches, 
bags, baskets and canoes, for which pur¬ 
pose they are often dyed with bright 
colors; it is very tenacious of life; it 
does not hibernate as the European por- 

cupine is said to do. This animal shows plainly that the quills are only modi¬ 
fied hairs, as it presents quills on the back, spiny hairs on the sides, and coarse, 
bristly hairs on the under surface, passing into each other m regular gradations. 
These quills, or more properly spines, vary m length, those of the g re ^est 
length being so soft and flexible as to offer little resistance, but beneath these 
are the shorter spines which constitute the animal’s real armamen . leir 
length is from five to ten inches and they are both stiff and very sharp-pointed. 
In making an attack or resisting its enemy the porcupine moves backward 
with all its spines spread. When it strikes a foe these shorter spines are left 
in the wounds, being so slightly attached to the skin of the animal They are 
so pointed that if not quickly withdrawn they work deeper into the flesh and 
will cause death. In Africa and India, where the porcupine abounds it !S a 
rather common circumstance to find a leopard or tiger that has been killed. y 
the penetration of its flesh by the porcupine spines In one “Stance, a tiger 
was found dead whose head, paws and ears were filled with the spines ot a 
p^pine which it had vainly tried to kill. The porcuUne though-on = of 
its power, is by no means aggressive, and will escape by flight rather _ than risk 
a conflict’, but when set upon there are few more dangerous adversaries. 



COMMON PORCUPINE. 


5°4 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




KANGAROO RAT. 


The Couiy (Sphiggurus insidiosus ) is a great climber, and is assisted in 
his arboreal excursions by his partly-naked prehensile tail. They are covered 
by short, sharp spines concealed by the hair. Any one who attempts to smooth 

its hair is apt 
to be severely 
wounded by 
this hidden 
arsenal. It is 
about a foot 
and a half long, 
and brown in 
color. It is de¬ 
cidedly lethar¬ 
gic, being very 
deliberate in 
its movements 
and some¬ 
times indolent 
enough to re¬ 
main motion¬ 
less in one spot 
for twenty-four 
hours. It lives 
upon flowers 

and fruits which it eats while comfortably seated upon its haunches. It lives 
in South America, where it is also called the sphiggure. 

In the genus Cercolabes, which includes the tree porcupines, the body is 
similarly armed with spines and spiny-hairs ; the tail is long and prehensile; 
all the feet are four-toed, with long and curved nails, the hind feet having each 
a rudimentary inner one, a small nailless tubercle, 
and being with the palm much expanded by a 
semicircular lobe on the inner side; the soles 
are rough and naked, the claws long, and the 
hind feet so articulated that the soles are directed 
inward; the lobe can be bent inward, being sup¬ 
ported by several bones, some supernumerary; 
the tail is thick and muscular at the base, 
slender and bare above, and prehensile at the 
end, the upper surface being applied to the 
branches, and the tail coiled in a direction just 
opposite to that of the monkeys of the same 
country. The muzzle is very movable, hairy, 

thick and obliquely truncated; the eyes small but skunk (. Mephitis mephitica). 

prominent; ears small and sparingly clothed with 

hairs; the incisors are narrow. The animal emits a disagreeable odor, somewhat 
like that of garlic. The food consists of fruit, leaves and tender bark. They are 
usually seen singly, and sleep during the heat of the day, feeding at morning 
and evening. They are harmless, easily reconciled to captivity, but have very 
little intelligence. They inhabit America from Mexico to Paraguay, living on 
trees, on which they are expert though slow climbers. 





THE LIVING WORLD. 


505 

The Brazilian Tree Porcupine ( Sphiggums prehensilis) is sixteen to twenty 
inches long to the base of the tail, the latter nearly as much more. It is abun¬ 
dant in Guiana, Brazil and Bolivia, and feeds on the fruit of the palms. 

The Mexican Tree Porcupine ( Sphiggums mexicanus) is mostly black; 
the spines are nearly all hidden by the fur, yellowish or whitish with black 
points; it is about eighteen inches long, its tail about fourteen; it inhabits the 
temperate mountain regions of eastern Mexico, between 2000 and 4000 feet 
above the sea. 

The Ground Pig, or Ground Rat ( Aulocodus swinderianus) , is a beaver- 
porcupine diminutive in size, found in South America and chiefly interesting 
because fossil bones of the same species have been discovered in the Eocene strata. 

The Cuypu ( Myopotamus coypu) inhabits the banks of a great many South 
American streams, and is found on both sides of the Andes. On the eastern 
side its habitat extends from Peru to 43 0 south latitude, on the west from 
Central Chili to Terra del Fuego. It is found also along the bays and channels 
between the little islands of the Chonos Archipelago. The specie peculiar to 
river-banks, subsist on vegetable matter, while it is said that those found near 
the sea add shell-fish to their bill of fare. It has the size and general appearance 
of a beaver, in fact it is sometimes called the La Plata beaver. Its general color 
is a dusky brownish-yellow. The hair is fine and silky, and at its base is a 
fur similar to that of the beaver, which has become a considerable article of 
commerce. The animal is nocturnal and is hunted only at night with dogs, 
with which it fights ferociously. Its flesh is white and agreeably flavored, 
though it is not generally eaten. Buenos Ayres is the headquarters of the trade 
in this sort of fur. 

The Viscacha, or Biscacha {Lagostomus trichodactylus) , is somewhat like the 
rabbit. It has smaller but wider-spreading ears ; its tail is about one-fourth of the 
length of the body and its tip turns upward. Its fur is close and fine, brownish- 
gray above and shading into white below. It flourishes on the pampas of 
Buenos Ayres. Here they are eagerly hunted and promptly put to death, not 
because their flesh is good for food, but because they dig up the soil and damage 
the crops. They serve one useful purpose after death, since their fur is made 
into caps. They live in companies, seldom venture far from home, are vegetarian 
in diet, move by leaps, like to pose upon their haunches, and carry food to 
their mouths with their fore paws very much as squirrels do. They express 
their feelings by a variety of short cries. The female produces four or five 
at a birth. The favorite resort of the viscacha is that part of the plains which 
during one-half of the year is covered with immense thistles, to the almost 
entire exclusion of other plants. Like the magpie, the viscacha carries off objects 
for which it has no possible use. Every hard object it finds, it drags forward 
to the mouth of its burrow, but for what purpose no one knows, as it does not use 
them as weapons of either attack or defence. One dark night, as he was riding 
along, a traveller dropped his watch. Missing it at his journey’s end, he retraced 
his steps the next morning, examining the entrance of each viscacha burrow on 
his route, when at one of these lay the lost property. 

Cuvier’s Lagotis, or the Alpine Chinchilla ( Lagidium cavieri ), resembles 
the viscacha, and is itself sometimes called by that name, yet its body is more 
slender, the thickest part being near the tail; the ears are longer and stand straight 
up from its head, and the tail is long and carried straight out. The body above 


5°6 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


is a greenishryellow in parts slightly mottled with black, while below it is auburn 
and the mustache is black. It has beautiful fur, and its flesh is edible. It lives 
on the western slopes of the Andes from i8° to 30° south, in rocky and stony 
places, where it digs a two-storied burrow, and dines on herbs and shrubs. 
The Indians prize it for its fur and its flesh. 

The Pale-footed Chinchilla {Lagidium pallipes) belongs to the same genus 
and is like the Alpine chinchilla in most of its characteristics, but it makes its 
home only in the rock valleys of Chili. 

The Woolly Chinchilla ( Chinchilla lanigera ) is the one that gives us the 
well-known chinchilla fur. It is a small creature, being but six inches in 
length from the nose to the root of the tail, which is only moderately long and 
covered with soft fur. It looks very much like a rat; its rich fur is so thick 
and fine as to resemble wool, and some of its threads so long that they may 
be spun. It is very mild and gentle, never bites, and likes to be petted. It 
is very cleanly, and free from any offensive odor. It digs burrows and is- 
sociable in its habits. It is to be found in Chili and Peru. Its fur makes sl 
valuable article of commerce, and has thus occasioned great slaughter of these 
animals. They are hunted by boys with dogs and sold to the traders. 

The Short-tailed Chinchilla (C. brevicaudata ) is larger than the preceding^ 
species, and lives in Peru, but exhibits few differences in either habits or ap¬ 
pearances. 

The Camas Rat-pouched Gopher ( Geomys borealis ) has a stout, thick body 
seven or eight inches long, and a tail about two and a quarter. It is of a 
reddish-brown above, a darker shade below. It has a cheek pouch upon each 
side, about three inches deep and lined with hairs. These it uses as its larder. 
They open externally so that the food has to be taken out of these receptacles 
and carried round to its introduction into the mouth. They subsist upon a. 
vegetable diet and take their meals sitting upon their haunches, using their 
fore paws as hands. The pouches are used also as baskets to convey their 
marketing home to their burrows, which they dig in sandy places, and which 
are deeper than those dug by the mole. The nest is rounded, made of soft sub¬ 
stances, is lined with hair which the mother plucks from her own body, and is 
located at a place where several of these underground galleries converge. In 
this nest the female deposits from five to seven young ones, during the month 
of March or April. These animals not only fight human beings when attacked, 
screaming and seeking to bite the intruder, but they fight among themselves 
with their snouts, as hogs do. They are to some degree nocturnal in their habits, 
and in the colder parts of the district which they inhabit, become dormant dur¬ 
ing the winter. It can travel nearly as fast backward as forward. It is trapped 
and destroyed to prevent the damage that it does to gardens and orchards. The 
ears are scarcely noticeable, and the eyes very small; its fur is soft and thick. 
It is to be found in Canada, and is spread westward to the Pacific Ocean, and 
in some localities as far southward as Arkansas. 

The Southern Pouched Rat, or Gopher (G. tuza), differs from the Canada 
pouched rat in the fact that its cheek-pouches open into its mouth, but in many 
other respects resembles it. It is about eight or nine inches long, brownish- 
yellow above and gray beneath. It lives in Georgia, Alabama and Florida. 

The Chestnut-cheeked Pouched Rat, or Gopher (G. castanops) , is of a pale 
yellowish-brown color, and is about eight iuches long, and has its home on our 
southwestern prairies. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


507 


The Mexican Pouched Rat, or Gopher (G . mexicanus ), is larger than the 
chestnut-cheeked gopher, being about eleven inches long. It is darker, too, its 
color approaching black. 

The Jerboa, or Bush-tailed Kangaroo (Bettongia penicillata ), is about the 
size of an .English hare, is nocturnal in its habits, and specially clever in try¬ 
ing, like a true Briton, to hedge himself off from everything but “his majesty, 
himself.” When grass is short and scanty, or the hillside devoid of herbage, 
the jerboa confronts the architectural problem of how, with insufficient mate¬ 
rial, to build a domicile, such as its instinct teaches it that it should have. 
He meets the difficulty by going elsewhere in search of building material, and 
having found it, collects the grass into little hay-ricks or sheaves, which he 
grasps with his prehensile tail, and then skips along to the site selected. As 
long as the young occupy the nest, the fond and careful parent never leaves 
or comes into her house without carefully concealing the entrance-way. It is 
to be borne in mind that, in the case of the jerboa , as in so many others, the 
popular appellation is no 
indication of family, as de¬ 
termined by anatomical 
structure; for the jerboa is 
no kangaroo at all, but a 
member of the rodentia. 

The African Petromys 
{Petromys typicus ), or Rock- 
rat, is found in south-west¬ 
ern Africa, in the valley of 
the Orange river. It is about 
seven inches in length with 
a tail yearly as long as the 
body. It is of a reddish 
color, and though the hind 
legs are not disproportion¬ 
ately developed, walks upon them, instead of going upon all four, 
nest among piles of stones, or in the crevices of rocks. 

The Dormouse (Muscardinus avellanarius ), or Mus Avellananus ( Lin - 
nceus ), a beautiful little animal, is very intimately allied to the squirrels, among 
which it has been placed by some authors, from which it differs chiefly in 
wanting the anterior, small molar in the upper jaw; in having the tail less 
bushy, and the hind legs less elongated. Its form is compact and full, the neck 
short, the head rather large, the nose prominent, the eyes of moderate size, the 
ears rather short and broadly rounded, the feet of delicate structure. The gen¬ 
eral color is light, yellowish-red, gradually becoming paler beneath, the fore part 
of the neck nearly white, the tail dull red. It is about five inches long. 

In its habits the dormouse resembles the squirrel, inasmuch as it climbs 
with facility, and exhibits great liveliness and agility; but it is also allied to 
the mouse, and passes a great part of its time on the ground, feeding on grass, 
corn and various small fruits. It resides in thickets generally remote from 
human habitations, placing its nest in bushes, and forming it of grass and 
leaves, intricately interlaced, and disposed in a roundish form with a narrow 
aperture at the top. Having laid up a store of food, and, like other hibernating 



jerboa (Dipus frjrypticus). 


It builds its 



5°8 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



animals, having become very fat towards the end of autumn, it betakes itself to 
its retreat, and rolling itself up into a ball, falls into a state of torpidity, from 
which it is now and then aroused by an unusually mild day, when it partakes 
of its provisions, and relapses into its usual condition. The young are of a 
brownish-gray color, four or five in number. 

Mr. Salmon gives the following account of a dormouse : “As I was push¬ 
ing my way amidst the briars and brambles, I chanced to stumble upon an 
interesting incident, in the shape of a little ball of grass curiously interwoven, 
lying on the ground. It was about eight inches in circumference, and on 

taking it up 
I soon ascer¬ 
tained, by the 
faint sound 
emitted from 
its interior on 
my handling 
it, that it con¬ 
tained a pris¬ 
oner. I bore 
my prize 
homeward 
for examina¬ 
tion, and on 

my making a small opening, immediately issued 
forth one of those beautiful little creatures, a 
dormouse. The heat of my hand and the warmth 
of the room had completely revived it from its 
torpor; it appeared to enjoy its transition by 
nimbly scaling every part of the furniture in 
all directions. It experienced no difficulty in 
either ascending or descending the polished 
backs of the chairs, and, when I attempted to 
secure it, it leaped from chair to chair with 
astonishing agility for so small a creature. On 
taking it into my hand, it showed not the least 
disposition to resent the liberty; on the contrary, it was very docile. On being 
set at liberty, it sprang at least two yards on to a table. I was much gratified 
at witnessing its agile movements. In the evening I placed my little stranger, 
with its original domicile, in a box, of which, on the following morning, I found 
it had taken possession, and again relapsed into a state of torpidity.” 

The Rat is a well-known rodent, and is the type of the muridce or mouse- 
family, and the common hous z-rcit is a gift to America from the old world. 

The rat is distinguished by unfailing presence of mind, and by never- 
flagging readiness of resource. It is very sympathetic with its kind, and has 
been known to lead about a blind companion. A tame rat suffered so from 
separation from its companions, as to die seemingly from melancholy. In carry¬ 
ing off eggs, two methods seem to be in vogue. First, a rat will lie on its 
back, and holding an egg in its feet will allow itself to be used as a handcart 
by its companions. The second plan is to form in line, and pass the egg from rat 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


509 


to rat. If a stairway is to be ascended, the lower rat in effect turns a semi-som¬ 
ersault, and presents the egg to the rat on the step above. When a bottle, 
containing liquid, is to be plundered the rat uses its tail. In attempting to 
get at a jar, which could not be scaled, rats have been known to throw up 
mounds of plaster to the required height. 

The Bay Bamboo Rat ( Rhizomys sumatrensis ) is a reddish-brown, and 
even its incisors are enamelled in red. It is about the size of a half-grown 
rabbit and sports an egg-shaped head. It looks like a mole and is very destruc¬ 
tive to the bamboo crops. Its scientific name was given under a false impres¬ 
sion for its habitat is Malacca. It digs deep holes near streams where grass 
and the bamboo are found, but in its fondness for cultivated crops it will stray 
far from its subterranean home, and thus exposes itself to the retribution which 
the farmers love to inflict upon it. The hind feet being webbed to adapt them 
to life in wet and marshy regions, the grace and agility which distinguishes 
the bamboo rat as a wader or 
swimmer is lost when it has 
to run over ploughed fields or 
dry ground. Hence, while 
feasting upon the fruit of 
others’ labors, there comes the 
abhorred planter and cuts its 
thread of life, for although the 
creature is a foot and a half 
in length, it is powerless when 
deftly seized by its hind feet. 

Companies of men engage in 
the hunt, and, like the Indian 
of tradition, dash out the 
animal’s brains against the 
rocks. 

The Zemmi ( Spalax ty- 
phlus ) belongs to southern 
Russia. It is tailless, eyeless 
(at least externally), earless 
and yet it is keen of hearing. It is about three-quarters of a foot in length, 
has a head broader than its body, end of the nose clothed with a skin-case, and 
the nostrils underneath, short legs, and short, stout claws. Its hair is furry, 
dark brown, with ashen gray extremities, and it is a remarkable mining engineer. 
It keeps its tunnels connected, and every few yards makes an opening to the 
surface, building hillocks one or two feet in circumference and of corresponding 
height. Whether regarded as a“ freak of nature,” or as a wonderful adaptation 
for the life which it is required to live, it is equally noteworthy. 

The Lemmings, or Arctic Musk-rats, are so numerous in hyperborean 
regions as to have given rise to serious discussions as to whether they do not 
fall in showers from the clouds, as Jupiter visited Io. 

The Snowy Lemming ( Cuniculus torquatus) turns white in the winter sea¬ 
son, as though to secure greater protection by identifying itself with the fancies 
and freaks of the blithesome snow. In the summer time, on the contrary, it is 
white only on the tail and on the feet; its back.is black or blackish, and the rest of 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


510 

its body beautifully mottled in buff, chestnut or gray, while about its neck it seems 
to wear a white collar, from which fact it is sometimes called the collared lemur. 
Its plump little body is wrapped in plentiful and thick fur mantle, and like Kriss- 
Kingle, it wears furred boots and gloves. It has but a poor apology for a tail—a 
mere suspicion of hairs—but it wears sharp claws and manages to hear with¬ 
out external ears. 

The Myodes Lemmings do not change color with the seasons, they often 
lack claws, and have a different dental structure. The orange-colored species 
(.Myodes obenses ) is short-clawed and a strikingly brilliant creature. 

The European Lemming (Myodes lemmi ) is specially notable for the migra¬ 
tions in which all lemmings indulge. They reproduce the process of the historical 

colonizations of Greece or 
the invasion of Rome by 
the Goths and Vandals. 
Whenever the lemmmgs are 
troubled by a Malthusian 
excess of population, then 
some must move, bag and 
baggage, and once started 
on their way they persist 
in “ fighting it out on their 
chase-line, even though it 
take all summer.” Rivers, 
lakes, towns, forests, moun¬ 
tains, valleys, plains or preci¬ 
pices seem to them not only 
not insurmountable but 
alike matters of indifference. 
From Browning’s “Pied 
Piper of Hamelin” one may 
derive the most adequate idea of the irresistible progress of their great hordes 
—not, be it understood, that Browning speaks of the lemming. 

The Short-tailed Field Mouse, Field Vole, or Campagnol (Arvicola 
arvalis),\§ red above and gray beneath. It is a good climber; in the winter it 
builds subterranean nests, but in the summer it prefers the surface of the 
ground. This is the little creature to which the poet Burns devoted one of his 
most characteristic and popular poems : 

“ Wee, sleekit, cow’rin, tim’rous beastie, 

Oh, what a panic in thy breastie ! 

Thou need na start awa sa hasty, 

Wi’ bickering brattle ! 

I wad be laith to rin an’ chase thee, 

Wi’ murd’ring pattle ! ” 

An extraordinary instance of the rapid increase of mice, and of the injury 
they sometimes do, occurred a few years ago in the plantations made by order 
of the Crown in Dean Forest, Gloucestershire, and in the New Forest, Hamp¬ 
shire. Soon after the planting of these forests, a sudden and rapid increase of 
mice took place in them, threatening destruction to all the young plants. Vast 
numbers of young trees were killed, the mice having eaten through the roots 



hamster and lemmings (Cricetus vulgaris, Myodes lemnius). 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


5ii 

of five-year old oaks and chestnuts, generally just below the surface of the 
ground. Hollies, also five or six feet high, were barked around the bottom; and 
in some instances the mice had crawled up the tree and were seen feeding on 
the bark of the upper branches. In the reports made to the Government on the 
subject it appeared that the roots had been eaten through, wherever they obstructed 
the runs of the mice. Various plans were devised for their destruction; traps 
were set, poison laid, cats turned out, in vain; nothing appeared to lessen their 
numbers. At last is was suggested that if holes were dug, into which the mice 
might be enticed, their destruction might be effected. Holes, therefore, were 
made, about twenty yards apart, being about twelve in each acre. These holes 
were from eighteen to twenty inches deep, and two feet one way by a foot and a 
half the other, and they were wider at the bottom than at the top, being exca¬ 
vated or hollowed under, so that an animal once in, 
could not easily get out again. In these holes at 
least thirty thousand mice were caught in the course 
of three or four months, that number having been 
actually counted and paid for by the officers of the 
forest. It was, however, calculated that a much 
greater number than this was taken out of the holes 
by weasels, hawks, owls and other birds. Cats, also, 
and dogs resorted to the holes to feed upon the 
mice , and many were destroyed by traps and by 
poison. In Dean Forest alone, the number killed 
was calculated at not much less than one hundred 
thousand. In the New Forest, from the weekly 
reports of the deputy-surveyor, about the same num¬ 
ber were destroyed; in addition to which it should 
be mentioned that these mice are found to eat each 
other, when other food falls short. Hence the total destruction of mice in these 
two forests would probably amount to more than two hundred thousand. 

Mice desiring to cross a stream make rafts of dried mushroom sacks, 
and embarking as a family party boldly sail the main, after the manner of 
squirrels. 

The Brown Water Vole (.Arvicola amphibius ), commonly named the 
water rat , has the body full; the neck very short; the head short, broad, rounded 
and convex above; the limbs small ; the tail rather long and slender, and the 
snout is small. The ears are short and entirely concealed in the fur. It has five 
toes on each foot. The general color of the fur above is dark-brown, the under 
parts and sides of the head, light brownish-red; the teeth are brownish-yellow, 
the eyes black, the nose dusky, the soles of the feet pale flesh-color, the claws 

pale yellowish-gray. , . . . , . r . , , 

The residence of the brown water vole is m the banks of rivers, brooks, 
canals, mill-dams and ponds, in which it forms long and tortuous burrows. It 
frequently betakes itself to the water, where it swims and lives with ease, and 
generally has an entrance to its retreat beneath the surface, so that in cases of 
danger it may effect its escape without appearing on land. In fine weather, 
especially in the morning and evening, it may often be seen sitting at the 
mouth of its hole, nibbling the grass or roots there; but m the middle of the 
day it usually remains under ground. 



SHORT-TAILED MOUSE. 


512 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


It feeds entirely on vegetable substances, chiefly roots, and has been known 
to deposit a store even of potatoes for winter use, for it does not appear to become 
torpid in the cold season, although in time of snow it does not come abroad. 

Five or six young are produced early in summer, and deposited in a nest, 
composed of dry grass and other vegetable matters. This animal never makes its 
appearance in houses; nor is it injurious to man, otherwise than by perforating 
the banks of canals. 

The Wood Mouse, or Long-tailed Field Mouse (Mus sylvaticus ), is 
generally distributed throughout Great Britain, and lives not so much in woods 
as its name implies, as in thickets, hedges, cornfields and gardens. It resem¬ 
bles the domestic mouse, and is of nearly the 
same size, but is easily distinguished by its 
reddish color, and its more elongated tail. It 
produces from five to eight young at a time, 
and is supposed to litter several times in the 
year. It is, in consequence, very abundant 
in many districts, and frequently commits 
considerable ravages in the cornfields and 
gardens. Its food consists of seeds, especially 
those of grasses, acorns, nuts and insects. 
Like the squirrel, it lays up a store for the 
winter, depositing great quantities of vegeta¬ 
ble substances in its holes, which are formed 
in banks, or under the roots of trees, or in 
the open fields. Sometimes it takes posses¬ 
sion of the deserted runs or nests of moles. 
It does not become torpid in winter, at least 
it has been seen in the midst of snow, when it had come abroad to search for 
food. Its more formidable enemies are kestrels, owls, ermines and weasels.. 
Although extremely timid it may be easily tamed. 

The Musk-rat, Musquash, or Ondatra (Fiber zibethicus ), is abundant in 
North America and not at all an unfamiliar sight. The blackish color of the 
young turns later into a dark brown, inclining to gray on the under parts, 
and its glossy fur is water-proof. The tail, half as long as the body, is scaled 
and thin, and serves the musk-rat as a rudder when in the water, and as a 
spade when it wishes to excavate its underground abode. The hind feet are 
bent at an angle and the toes webbed, so that they serve the uses of a pair of 
oars. The nose is covered with fur, and the small ears are likewise almost 
buried. The musk-rat is timid, and hence is not so readily secured as it is easy 
to see. It will excavate as far as fifty feet, and builds its nest of dry reeds 
and grasses. At one time the musk-rat played a prominent part in our foreign 
commerce, but more acceptable furs have driven his from the market. Were it 
not for the damage which they do to dams and embankments (which they 
mistakenly look upon as natural advantages not to be neglected)', the musk-rat 
might now pass his life in peace, so far as fear of man is concerned, but owing 
to a want of harmony of effort between man and himself, he is slain, lest he 
innocently cause great damage. 

The India Musk-rat, Sondeli, or Monjourou ( Sorex murinus ), though 
not hunted for the musk of commerce, is so strongly impregnated with strong 



FIELD mouse {Mus sylvaticus). 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


5i3 



od^rs that its mere presence is as baneful as the secretions used by the skunk. 
Its hair is short, mouse-colored, and growing whitish on the under parts. 

The European Hamster (Cricetus frumentarius ) is very much like the true 
rat, but has large cheek-pouches. Its range is of wide extent embracing most 
of Europe and Asia. The hamster is about nine inches long; its tail three. 
The color of the upper parts is a reddish-brown, below it is black and the feet 
are white. It has one white spot on the throat, another on the breast, and three 
light spots on each of its sides but different varieties are of different colors, one 
species being black. They are a great pest to the farmers, for they not only have 
a voracious appetite and an enormous capacity for stuffing themselves, but having 
eaten all they 
possibly can, 
they crowd 
into their 
pouches all 
the wheat, 
peas, and 
beans these 
will hold, and 
carry this 
food off to 
their burrows 
for winter use. 

Here the for¬ 
age is care¬ 
fully cleaned 
and the husks 
and ch a f f 
thrown away. 

The peasant 
who goes dur¬ 
ing the win¬ 
ter to hunt 
the hamster 
for its skin, 

opens the bur- musk-rat. 

row and pos¬ 
sesses himself, of the edible contents, sometimes finding in a single storehouse 
as much as two bushels of grain. The animals’ mode of constructing these com¬ 
bined magazines and dwellings is very elaborate. First, they form the vestibule 
by digging down obliquely. At the back end of this, the male sinks a single 
perpendicular shaft, the female several. At the end of these passages several 
rooms are formed, for each young one is said to have its private apartment, and 
some are used for pantries. Except during a very short season of mating the 
male and female occupy separate apartments and see little or nothing of each 
other. The hamsters fight, kill and devour animals of their own species, and 
lesser animals of other sorts. During the entire cold season they hibernate, yet 
so great is the damage they do during the summer, that famines have been caused 
by them, and governments have had to set a price upon their heads. 


33 










5H 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


The Jerbillies ( Gerbillince) suffer constant depredation from a horned 
viper [vipera cerastes ), whose appearance alone might well affright the timid 
little creatures, even though the snake’s designs were not known to be murderous. 
The jerbillies vary in length from two to three feet, and are clad in a tawny, 
yellow, shell-like armor, marked with brown to increase the resemblance to the 
sandy soil, in which it burrows. It is distinguished for having very short fore 
feet and hind limbs of very great length, so that its locomotion is identically, 
like that of the kangaroo. The tail is equal to the length of the body. 

The Harvest Mouse [Mus minutus) is somewhat smaller than our common 
house-mouse, which it resembles. Its hair is brown but tipped with red, and it 
it white on the under parts. It hangs its nests to stems of straw and stubble, 
and weaves them into perfect spheres of fine grass. It leaves no opening, and 
naturalists have not yet decided how it provides for its young. 

The Brown, or Norway Rat (Mus decumanus ), has a body eight to ten 
inches long, and the tail six to eight inches, scantily covered with hair and 
about two hundred rings. The color above is grayish-brown mixed with rusty, 
grayer on the sides and ashy white below; the upper surface of the feet dirty 
white. This species, originally from India and Persia, entered Europe through 
Russia, appearing in the central countries about the middle of the eighteenth 
century; it was brought to America about 1775, and has since greatly increased 
in numbers, driving out here, as in Europe, the black rat, which had been 
previously introduced. It is now generally distributed over the world, having 
been transported thither in ships, and is most abundant near the sea-coasts. 
Its haunts are well-known to be cellars, sewers, canals, docks and similar dirty 
places, wherever it can make a burrow or find sufficient food. It is a great 
household pest, and so prolific that its devastations are sometimes very great. 
It breeds from three to five times in a year, having twelve to fifteen at a 
birth, the males always being the most numerous. Not only the black rat, 
but other species indigenous to the old world, are driven off or destroyed by it; 
the dead and even living persons are attacked by it when hard pressed; it is 
not only pursued by man, dogs and cats, but the stronger will kill and devour 
the weaker of its own species. 

The Black Rat (Mus rattus) is seven or eight inches long, with a tail of 
eight and a half inches. The color is very dark, often nearly black, with 
numerous long hairs projecting from the short and soft fur, lead-colored beneath 
and the feet brown. It has a slighter form than the brown rat, with the upper 
jaw more projecting, the ears larger, and the tail much longer in proportion. 
It is not very strong, but exceedingly active; being rather timid, it is exter¬ 
minated by the larger and fiercer brown rat; the habits of the two species are 
much the same, but the black rat is less a burrowing animal, and prefers the 
upper parts of the houses to the cellars and dirty places. It used to be the 
common house-rat of Europe and warm countries until driven off by its con¬ 
gener; it appear to have been brought to the new world about the middle of 
the sixteenth century; it came originally from Central Asia and, like the preced¬ 
ing species, it is omnivorous. 

The Roof, or White-bellied Rat (M. tectorum ), is about six and a half 
inches long, and the tail about eight, with two hundred and forty rings; 
it is colored above like the brown rat, the lower parts and upper surface 
of feet yellowish white; the head is rather blunt, the eyes large, whiskers 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


5 X 5 



long and black, ears very large, and the thumb rudimentary. It came origi¬ 
nally from Egypt and Nubia, thence passed to Italy and Spain, and from the 
last to America in the fifteenth century; it is common in Mexico and Brazil, 
and in the Southern States, but is rarely found above North Carolina; it 
is fond of inhabiting the thatched roofs of houses, whence its name ; it is the 
same as the mus alexandrinus and mus americanus. 

The Giant ' Rat of Bengal and the Coromandel Coast Rats (M. 
giganteus , Raffles) have bodies thirteen inches long and tails as much more; 
they are very destructive in gardens and granaries, devouring chickens 
and ducks, undermining houses, and piercing the mud walls; they are 
the largest of the sub-family, a male weighing as much as three pounds; 
it is often eaten by the lower caste Hindoos. All these rats are fond of fight¬ 
ing, and with their omnivorous habits are decided cannibals, eating not only 

their conquered brethren, 
but also their own 
young. Though living 
in the filthiest places 
and in the foulest air, 
they always have a sleek 
coat, and take the great¬ 
est pains to clean them¬ 
selves, licking their paws 
in the manner of a cat; 
during mastication the 
jaws move very rapidly ; 
they drink by lapping ; 
when asleep the body is 
coiled in a ball, with the 
nose between the hind 
animals of Borneo. legs and the tail curled 

MUSK DEER, MACQUB, FLYING FOX AND ar0Un( J tllC OUtSide, RaV" 
DORNBD OR RHINOCEROS BIRD. , 

mg only the ears out 
ready to catch the least sound of danger; as 
food" fails they migrate in companies from 
one place to another. 

There are more muscles in a rat’s 
tail than in the human hand; this most 
useful appendage with its chain of movable bones and its numerous muscles is 
covered with minute scales and short stiff hairs, making it prehensile and 
capable of being used as a hand, a balancer or a projecting spring. The teeth 
are long and sharp, but there is nothing specially dangerous in a wound made 
by them; their strength enables them to gnaw ivory, as dealers m this article 
well know; in fact, even in Africa, elephants’ tusks are found gnawed by rats, 
squirrels, porcupines, and perhaps by other rodents, as long as any gelatine 
can be found in them. These animals are greatly subject to tumors of the 
skin, which often end fatally; they also soon perish without water. Persecuted 
as these animals are, they have their uses, especially as scavengers for devour¬ 
ing refuse matter, which would otherwise engender disease in tropical climates 
or in large cities, in whose sewers they live in legions. Their skins are em- 





5*6 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


ployed for various purposes, as in the manufacture of the thumbs of gloves, 
but are too delicate for any article requiring much strength. The Chinese and 
other Asiatic nations, and many African tribes consider the flesh of rats a great 
delicacy, and Arctic travellers have often found them a welcome addition to their 

bm ^ ar p lorida> or Wood Rat (M. floridana), is about eight inches long and 
the tail six inches, the short stiff hairs of the latter not concealing the scaly 
rings; the color above is dun, mixed with dark and yellowish-brown, lighter on 
the sides beneath, and the feet white; tail dusky above, below white; the head 
is sharp. It is abundant in the Southern Atlantic and Gulf States, and is 
found occasionally in the West; its habits vary much in different localities living 
in some places in the woods, in others under stones or m the rums of buildings ; 
in swampy districts it heaps up mounds two or three feet high of grasses, 
leaves and sticks, cemented by mud; sometimes the nest is made in the fork 
or the hollow of a tree. It moves about only at twilight, is very active and an 
excellent climber; the food consists of corn, nuts, cacti, crustaceans, mollusks 
and various roots and fruits; the disposition is mild and docile; from three 
to six young are produced twice a year. 

The Bush Rat (M. mexicand) is rather small, light brown above, iulvous 
on the sides, under parts and feet white; tail hairy. Larger species are found 
west of the Rocky Mountains, very destructive to the furs, blankets and stores 
of the trappers; for an account of these see Vol. VIII., of the “Reports of the 
Pacific Railroad Expedition.” In the bone caves of Pennsylvania have been 
found the remains of a species whose body must have been at least twelve 
inches long. In the genus sigmodon the general appearance is that of a large 
field mouse; the body is stout, the hair long, the muzzle blunt and hairy, except 
on the point of the nose; the upper lip slightly notched; thumb rudimentary; soles 
naked, with six granular tubercles; incisors stout, the upper much rounded ; ears 
and tail moderate; molars rooted with a plane surface, the last two lower with 
enamel in the form of an S, whence the name. The genus is confined to the 


southern parts of the United States. . 

The best known species is the Cotton Rat (Sigmodon kisfiidus), about five 
inches long with a tail of four; the color above is reddish-brown, brightest on 
the sides, lined with dark-brown, and under parts grayish-white; the hair is long 
and coarse, and the claws very strong. It is more abundant in the Southern 
States than the meadow mice in the North, living in hedges, ditches and 
deserted fields, and consequently doing but little damage to the planter. It is 
gregarious, feeding on seeds of grasses and leguminous plants, and also, on 
flesh; it picks up wounded birds and small mammals, crawfish and crabs; it is 
very fierce and pugnacious, the stronger killing and devouring the weaker, and 
the males often eat the young; it is also very fond of sucking eggs. Nocturnal 
in habit, it is seen by day in retired places; it digs very extensive galleries 
not far from the surface, a family in each hole; very prolific, it breeds several 
times a year, having four to eight in a litter; it swims and dives well. It received 
its name not from any injury it does to the cotton plant, but from, its lining 
the nest with this substance, which it is said to collect in large quantities.. It.is 
preyed upon by foxes, wild cats, hawks and owls; it is not found north of Virginia. 

In Africa is found the Mixed-colored Tree Rat {Dendroniys mesomelas), a 
dweller in the trees, and colored gray, with a black stripe in its beak. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


517 




The Skull Cap (Lophiomys imhausi ) was discovered some seventeen years 
ago, and until quite recently was represented by a single individual specimen. 
Even now but four of the animals are known to naturalists, and these come from 
Abyssinia. It is stout in body, short in legs, long-tailed, small clawed. It is 
as badly compounded of the peculiarities of different animals as was the artificial 
“humbug,” submitted to the entomological professor. It is in skull like a 
reptile, in feet like the opossum, in coloring like the skunk, in size and 
form like the guinea pig, in having an opposable thumb like the monkey, in 
tail like a fox, and in mane like the fossil 
elephant. Its own peculiar manifestations 
are an ability to erect its mane at pleasure; 
furrows between the mane and the hair on 
the sides of the body; hair in the furrows 
which is spongy and unlike any other known 
hair, fur or bristles, and an extravagant 
length to the hair of the body, as in the 
case of the sheep of the Dinkas, the buffalo 
and some other animals. 

The Azar’s Agouti (Dasyprocta azarce) mole (Taipa europ^us). 

is South American, and for the purposes of 

The Living World needs no further particular description beyond its name. 

The Hutiaconga ( Capromys pilorides ) is Cuban in its habitat, about two 
and a half feet in length (of which the tail claims a third), black and yellow 
in coloring, short-tailed, naked and scaly, and is, in short, a tree rat. 

The Hutia-carabali ( Capromys prehensilis) is als© Cuban, is smaller in 
size, and longer of tail, and its tail is to some extent prehensile. 

The Tuko-tuko (Ctenomys brasiliensis ) is 
a stout, little gray or brown creature, about 
a foot in length from the end of its nose to 
the tip of its tail. Its ears are rudimentary, 
and its feet have the singular appendage of 
a comb of bristles. It is frugivorous, noc¬ 
turnal and subterranean. Its habitat is South 
America, from Brazil to Patagonia. 

The Jumping Hare (Pedetes caffer) be¬ 
longs to South Africa, and derives its name 
from its method of progression, which is by 
kangaroo-like leaps of twenty or thirty feet. 
As it is gregarious a sight of a troop is 
, much more comical than any “ sack race.” 

SECTION OE MOLES NEST. ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ver y 

bushy, and the ears, in size, arrangement and coloring, resemble those of the 
hare family. Its hind feet, although four-toed, are provided with claws, which 
have advanced a great ways in their effort to convert themselves into unmis¬ 


takable hoofs. . 1 . r 

The African Briste-toe Gundi ( Ctenodactylus massoni) is ot the size ol 
a small rabbit. Its tail is short, its prevailing color gray. It is to be met with 

in Southern Africa. . . , . . 

The Jumping Mouse ( Zapus hudsonius) is North American. It is built on 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


518 

the plan of the house-mouse, but enlarged behind ; has very long hind legs, 
adapted for leaping; internal cheek-pouches, and altogether suggests the kan¬ 
garoo undergoing a transition into a mouse. 

The Mole-like Pocket Rat {Thomomys talpoides) is about three-quarters of 
a foot in length, and varies in color from gray to russet, the month, feet and 
tail generally being white. It takes its name from being pouched. 

The Rocky Mountain spec r ies ( Thomomys clusius ) is noticeable only as a 
member of the pigmy family. 

THE INSECTIVORA. 

With the subsidence of the waters and the perfection and riotous varia¬ 
tions of plant-life, sea and fen, land and air, alike required and were fitted for 
the dominion of the insects, and we should naturally expect as the next 
stage in progression to find a class of animals which will prevent what had 
become the disastrous results of the fecundity of the insects. Nor are we to be 
disappointed, for we find that with the rodents to restrain the extravagance 
of vegetable growth, we have the Insectivora, or Insect-eating Animals, who 
limit the otherwise absolute and tyrannical sway of lower animal forms. Here 
belong the moles , the hedgehogs and the shrews , some species of which will 
be known to all of our readers. 

Th insectivora add canine teeth, which are not perennial. The legs are inter¬ 
mediate between those of the rodents and the winged-legs of the bats; the brain 
is less convoluted than that of the rodents, but more highly developed in its 
well-defined direction. 

Perhaps in none of the animal creation, so much as in the Mole ( Talpa 
europea ), is adaptation to the necessities of life so evident. It is insectivorous, 
and, to forage to the best advantage, must do its work underground. Its nose 
and fore paws enable it to burrow with a rapidity which makes its speedy 
disappearance almost spectral. Its rich, thick fur lies equally well in any direc¬ 
tion, and is absolutely proof against defilement from the earth and other sub¬ 
stances with which it comes in contact. Its muscles are abnormally developed 
in the shoulders and fore legs, and rest upon a frame-work stout in proportion. 
Its little eyes are hidden beneath its dense fur and are protruded when under 
unusual circumstances it needs their service. Its sense of hearing and its sense 
of smell are remarkably acute, and its sensibility of touch most exquisite. It 
is a fierce, rapacious little creature, giving the freest play to passions and appe¬ 
tites, which one might rather expect in the case of the leopard and the tiger. It is 
a skilful and ingenious architect, so much so as to justify a description 
of its home. It first constructs quite a large mound or hill. It then makes 
two galleries one running around the hill, near the top, and the other near the 
bottom; these galleries it connects by five passages. It now digs a circular 
hole in the centre of the floor, and unites this to the lower gallery by means 
of three hallways. A large passage is then run from the central pit under the 
lower gallery to the ground outside, and a large but varying number of pas¬ 
sages from the centre to the lower gallery. The pit is the bedroom of the 
mole , although in the warm months it does not use it. When the female builds 
its nest it does not construct it in the house, as described, but in a separate 
mound, connected with the other. The black, soft fur of the mole is sometimes 
used for making purses and pouches, but thus far has not played any large 
part in commerce. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


5*9 


The Changeable Mole, Gilded Mole, Shining Mole, or Cape Chryso- 

chlore (Chrysochloris holosericea), is among the notabilities of the Cape of Good 
Hope. Its silken coat is bronze-green or bronze-red, constantly changing in the 
light like a variable silk. Its teeth do not meet, but the ones below fit into 
vacant spaces' beside the ones above. 

The Star-nosed Mole, Long-tailed Mole, Knotty-tailed Mole, or Radiated 

Mole ( Condylura cristata ), has a proboscis like a nose which terminates in what 
looks like a rose-colored sea-anemone, and this singular addition to his olfactory 
organ can be expanded or contracted at pleasure. It has North America for its 
habitat. 

The African Mole, or Golden Mole (Chrysochloris aurea), has a peculiar 
arrangement for securing the leverage that such a constant and deep-digging 
miner requires, while at the same time the length of limb shall not increase 
the resistance with which he is to meet. The limbs then are exteriorly very 
short, but there are deep cavities in the walls of the thorax which admit of the 
presence and use of what may be called leg-pistons. 

The Hairy African Mole (Chrysochloris villosa ), and Trevelyan’s African 
Mole (Chrysochloris trevelyani) , have skull- 
ridges which give the hair of the head the 
appearance of a necklace, or a cap. 

The Rice Mole (Oryzoryctes hovi ) is 
a small animal whose powers of destruction 
are a matter of no small concern to the 
farmers of Madagascar. 

The Long-tailed Microgale (Microgale 
longicaudata) likewise belongs to Madagas¬ 
car, and is notable among mammals for the 
possession of an extremely large number of 
caudal vertebrae. 

The Golden Geogale is a soft-furred 
mole-shrew whose habitat is the western 
part of Madagascar. Its main importance 
is a connecting-link between the preceding 

and following species. T j- 

The Java Tupaia (Tupaia javanicus) is smaller than its Indian congener, 

but has no other popular distinctions. , .. . , , _ 

The Borneo Feather-tailed Tupaia (Ptilocercus lowi ) is only about five 
inches in length, but its long tail is more strikingly ornamented than those 

'j'he Indian Tupaia ( Tupaia ferruginea ) is found in India and Sumatra. Its 
coat is silken, brown and yellow in coloring, and its bushy tail is very like 
that of a squirrel. Its head is prolonged into a whiskered snout, of which 
the pointed upper jaw is much the longer. It is arboreal, and its sharp claws 

render it quite successful as a climber. . , , 

The Oregon Mole (Scapanus townsendu ) is notable for having a very dark 

purple jq a j ry -tailed Mole (Scapanus breweri ) is found in the Western 
States, and is, for the purposes of The Living World, distinguished by the 
hairy covering of its tail. 



INDIAN TUPAIA. 


520 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


The American Mole ( Scalops aquaticus ) has a fringed muzzle, and is a 
common sight in the eastern parts of the United States. Its muzzle is longer 
than that of most of the family, and its claws ar£ especially sharp and adapted 
to rapid burrowing. 

The Haytian Agouti (Solenodon paradoxus) is unusually large-sized, being 
about eight or ten inches in length, exclusive of its tail. It is soft-furred and 
passes its life in the mountains. 

The Almiqui, or Cuban Agouti ( Solenodon cubanus ), belongs to the same 
family as the Haytian agouti, but has certain peculiar habits. For example, 
when pursued it will, like a young child, hide its head in the first crevice or 

hole, and consider itself securely concealed. 
It also unwisely utters a shrill cry while rob¬ 
bing the poultry yards. The length of its 
body is about a foot, and the tail continues 
the length for about three-quarters of a foot. 

The Swift Potamagale (Potomagale velox) 
is a water animal belonging to equatorial Africa. 
It is built upon the plan of Winan’s cigar¬ 
shaped ocean steamer, as the long snout and 
oar-like tail seem to be merely elongated con¬ 
tinuations of its stout body. The hind feet 
have the toes connected by a membrane, and the animal is an exceptionally 
rapid swimmer. It is said by some travellers and naturalists to vary its natural 
diet of insects by courses of fish. It is undoubtedly true that it is an enthusi¬ 
astic and successful fisherman, even though its carnivorous tastes be yet unau¬ 
thenticated. 

The Oared Shrew, or Black Water Shrew ( Crossopus fodiens ), has its 
black coat mixed with white hairs, and its under parts are grayish. The tail 
for some distance is somewhat cylindrical, and the remaining portion is flattened 
like the blade of an oar. Its thick, soft fur is a sufficient protection against 
the dampness of the water. It is sportive, 
graceful and incessantly active. Its ears 
are provided with a set of valves, which 
close automatically whenever the creature 
dives. 

The Rustic Shrew, Etruscan Shrew, 
or Italian Shrew ( Corsira rustica ), is ex¬ 
ceedingly minute, being but one and a half 
inches in length, with possibly another inch 
of tail. It is generally believed to be the smallest of the mammal species. 

The Elephant Shrew ( Macroscelides typicus) is South African, and carries 
a thin proboscis of disproportionate size. It is dark brown in coloring, although 
sometimes tinged with red. It is a burrower, rapid in its movements, and fre¬ 
quently sits upon its haunches. 

The Jumping Shrew ( Macroscelides typus) belongs to the Cape of Good 
Hope, and is a burrower. ft takes its name from the fact that it has been 
selected as a typical jumping shrew. The Algerian Jumping Shrew ( Macro - 
scelides rozeti) does not differ except in habitat, progressing by leaps like the 
jerbillies. 



EUROPEAN SHREW. 



ELEPHANT SHREW. 





THE LIVING WORLD. 


52i 


The Mozambique Jumping Shrew ( Petrodromus tetradactylus) does not bur¬ 
row but lives amidst the rocks, and his anatomy is varied to meet this change 
of condition. 

The Mozambique Beak-toothed Shrew ( Rhyncocyon cirnei) is nocturnal, 
subterranean and about three-quarters of a foot in length. The Zanzibar variety 
of the beak-toothed shrew (.Rhyncocyon peter si ), as well as the Long-legged Beak- 
tooth ( Rhyncocyon macrurus) and the Golden-rump Beak-tooth (. Rhyncocyon 
chrysophagus ), of the Mombaco, are recent discoveries and therefore likely to 
meet the attention of the readers of current travels. 

The Pig-like Wood Mouse ( Hylomys suillus) belongs to northern India and 
has short legs, clawed feet, and although pro¬ 
perly a hedgehog is very rat-like in appear¬ 
ance. 

The European Shrew ( Sorex vulgaris) 
lives either in the fields or the fringe of the 
woods, though it is sometimes to be found 
in bogs and fens. This variety of habitat is 
quite consistent with the fact that they are 
not strictly insectivorous, but find birds and 
mollusks quite palatable. It is preternaturally 
. pugnacious, and its remarkable fecundity (annual families of six or seven being 
the rule) seems to require a corresponding liability to a decimation of its num¬ 
bers. It is furthermore subject to a yearly plague whose ravages are quite 
extensive. It flesh is so tainted with a disagreeable secretion that no creature 
but the owl will try to fatten on its carcase. Those familiar with the popular 
superstitions of Europe (through such books as those of Baring-Gould) will call 
to mind the wealth of stories relating to vodooism in which this poor little 
shrew plays a conspicuous part. 

The House Shrew ( Crocidura araneus) is found in northern Africa, in 

Russia and in Siberia. 

The Ciliated Shrew (Crocidura suavolens) 
has its habitat about the shores of the Medi¬ 
terranean and is one of the mammalian pig¬ 
mies. 

The Broad-nosed Shrew (Crocidura 
platyrhinus) belongs to the North Atlantic 
coast States. 

The Mexican Shrew (Crocidura craw- 
fordii) has no popular peculiarities, yet its 
habitat renders it likely to form the acquaintance of American readers. 

The Mole Shrew (Blarina brevicauda) is common in the United States. 
Its ears are entirely concealed, and its tail is so disproportionately short and 
thin as to suggest that it must, by great exertion, have escaped from a more 

than ordinarily muscular grasp. . 

The Ash-colored Mole Shrew (Blarina cinerea ) has fewer teeth (thirty) 

and a peculiar coloring. 

The Marsh Shrew (Neosorex palustns) is aquatic, has valved ears, and is 
found from the extreme Eastern States as far west as the Rocky Mountains. 
The corresponding species found on the west of the mountains, the Facmc 




SHREW MOUSE. 


522 the living world. 

Marsh Shrew ( Neosorex navigator ) is substantially identical with the last-named 
species. 

The Spanish Desman ( Myogale pyrenaico ), like the other desmahs , does not 
burrow, but tunnels passages which, meeting in a common centre, form the 
radii of a circle. Its peculiar secretory glands alike protect it from attack, and 
increase the length of the tail, at the same time better fitting it for use in the water. 

The American Shrew Mole (. Neurotrichus gibbsii) is like the mole in its 
system of dentition, although the teeth themselves are patterned upon those of 
the shrew. It is subterranean and tunnels like the Spanish desman. It is 
found on the prairies in the recent addition to the galaxy of stars and stripes, 
which but recently was not the State but the Territory of Washington. 

The Shrew Mouse, Fetid Shrew, Ranny, or Erd Shrew ( Corsira vulgaris) r 
is a pugnacious little subterranean creature, protected against attacks from 
animals by its exceedingly offensive odor. In seasons when the worms and 
insects dig too deeply for the shrew mouse , the latter dies by hundreds, but finds 
no animal except the owl to offer its stomach as a sepulchre. Around the 
shrew mouse has gathered the most generous abundance of superstitions, mostly 
turning, however, upon its supposed venom. 

The Hedgehog (. Erinaceus europoeus) is well-known because of his prickly 
armor, and his ability, when curled into a ball, to resist all attempts to uncoil 
him. Its spines are about an inch long, lying in a horizontal position, point¬ 
ing backward, and furnished with a head which holds them fast in the skin. 
This armament enables the hedgehog to fall from considerable heights without 
injury. The young are born with unopened eyes and to a careless observer 
would seem to be young birds. It is readily domesticated and is superior to any 
powder in its ability of destroying cockroaches and other insects. It seems to be 
poison-proof and is especially fond of killing and eating snakes. It success¬ 
fully attacks poultry, grouse, and even hares and rabbits, and is not averse to• 
fish. When combative it uses its teeth and claws. It has been known to show 
a fondness for strong drink. 

The Siberian Hedgehog, or Long-eared Hedgehog (. Erinaceus auritus ), 
is smaller than the common hedgehog, and its head is very pig-like in appear¬ 
ance. Its spines are tri-colored—white, brown and yellow. 

The Tanrec, or Madagascar Hedgehog ( Centetes ecaudatus ) is seemingly 
longer in body and limbs. It is tailless, but the length of its muzzle seems 
to be a compensation for this privation. Its quills are shorter and yellow with 
black tips. It passes its winters in a burrow, and while hedgehogs are not, in 
the strictest sense, hibernating animals, they for the most part pass the season in 
a state of lethargy, or torpor. It is nocturnal in its habits and has the color 
of the mole. 

The Spiny Tanrec ( Centetes spinosus) is smaller, and its quills are white,, 
with mahogany-colored tips. Its habitat is Madagascar and it is captured for 
its flesh. 

The Banded Tanrec ( Centetes madagascarensis ) is almost black but has 
three broad stripes of whitish-yellow running longitudinally. It is a native also 
of Madagascar. 

The Sumatran Gymnura ( Gymnura rafflesii ) is an opossum-like animal,, 
prevailingly black with white head, neck, flanks and tail (in the latter half). 
Its white face is made more striking by a pronounced black stripe over each ejfe. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


523 

The Colugo ( Galeopithecus volans) is not a true flyer, but can sustain itself 
in air for a short time, while passing from tree to tree. It uses its tail as a 
rudder, but perhaps more frequently flies down than up. It prefers climbing to fly¬ 
ing where it has any choice. It is generally quiet during the daylight and the 
darkness, preferring the hours claimed by Aurora, and those distinguished by 
the term crepuscular (as belonging to the twilight). Passing its life amidst 
the thick foliage of the forest trees, it lives upon leaves as one might expect, 
although it varies its fare by occasional dishes of insects. It is often classed 
among the bats and has been described in that department of The Living 
World. 

CETACEANS. 

As bats are the flying mammalia, so cetaceans are their antithetical, or 
swimming congeners, which strain from the water of the sea the smaller 
animal life which supplies them with food. Some of the Cetaceans, or Whales, 
have already been considered in connection with the fishes, since, regarded 
otherwise than structurally, the cetaceans have many external resemblances to 
the order of fishes. The sea has thus far been needed by man only as fur¬ 
nishing channels for his commerce, and as supplying the materials for certain 
industries. Hence, as should be expected, if the author’s theory and conclu¬ 
sions have seemed to be sound and well-supported, the larger forms of life 
have persisted longer in the waters than upon dry land. Still, the whales , 
narwhals, grampuses, porpoises and dolphins, are rapidly growing fewer, and 
doubtless making way for a new succession of life, which will be found better 
suited, and more directly contributive to the needs of man’s higher civilization. 
The cetaceans are protected by their bulk, strength, and thick skins against 
attacks from dangerous enemies other than man—irresistible man. Being 
mammals, and therefore requiring oxygenated air, they not only rise to the 
surface, but find their abundant blubber useful, not alone as securing buoyancy, 
but as protecting them against the inclemency of the deep sea. Regarded 
anatomically, the cetaceans rank high or low, as we regard the organism of the 
brain, or that of the skeleton. Their dentition is peculiar in that the teeth 
are not incisors, canines or molars, but special cone-like forms, suited to the 
uses to which they are to be put. The stomach of the cetacean , like that of the 
camel and other of the cud-chewing animals, is divided into chambers, and while 
the design of this structure is not certainly known, it would seem to furnish an 
illustration of the wonderful means by which all animals are adapted to the 
normal conditions of their life. The circulatory system, likewise, is specialized, 
and the veins and arteries form reservoirs, so as to provide, seemingly, for the 
frequent and long-continued descents which the cetacean makes into the deep 
sea. The cetaceans , as fossils, make their earliest appearance in the Eocene 
period, where we find the phocodontia , the squaladon , and the zeuglodon . 
These fossil-forms give evidence of having differentiated into the cetacea and 
the succeeding class, sirenia. 

The Australian Two-toothed Whale (. Ziphius australis ) is ash-colored, 
lighter above and darker below, and in connection with the Nova Zembla Two¬ 
toothed Whale ( Ziphius novcezoelandice) , the European Two-toothed Whale 
(,Ziphius cavirostris) , the Two-toothed Cow-fish (Mesoplodon bidens ), the New 
Zealand Cow-fish ( Mesoplodon grayi ), the Bottled-nose Whale ( Hyperoodon 
butzkopf ), are interesting as belonging to a species regarded, until quite recently, 


524 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


as wholly extinct, and as illustrating the change of habitat, as man takes 
possession of what was before the dominion of,the cetacean. 

The Beluga, or White Whale (. Delphinapterus leucus) begins life as lead- 
colored, becomes mottled as it approaches maturity, and finally assumes a garb 
of the most beautiful cream-color. It “ roams the wide seas over,” has been 
found as large as fifteen to seventeen feet in length, is well supplied with 
teeth, and prefers to feast upon the larger fishes, which cannot compete with 
v its rapid and powerful swimming. 

The Gladiator Whale [Orca gladiator ) is round-headed, stout-toothed and 
heavy-jawed, as it needs to be, since, contrary to the conventions of the cetaceans , 
it is pugnacious, and directs its attacks particularly against the whalebone 
whales. It is common in the waters of the north Atlantic. 

The Black Gladiator, or Straight-finned Killer ( Orca rectipinna :), is the 
corresponding species found in the Pacific ocean. 

The Caing Whale, or Black Globe-headed Whale ( Globiocephalus 
melas ), is gregarious, and a common sight to travellers upon the broad Atlantic. 

The Short-finned Whale, or Southern Black-fish ( Globiocephalus brachy- 
pterus), is toothed, black in color, and found from the latitude of New York 
southward. 

The Pigmy Sperm Whale (. Kogia floweri ) belongs to India and Aus¬ 
tralia, and, though a pigmy in comparison with the mammoth forms of the 
sperm whale, yet reaches the not inconsiderable length of eighteen or twenty feet. 

The Rorqual of the Atlantic ( Agelaphus gibbosus ), or Scrag WLale, 
appeals to our patriotism, as it was well known to the early New England 
fishermen, and led to the possibilities of those ancestral traditions which are now 
so highly prized by some. Its back is supplied with rough, bunch-like pro¬ 
tuberances, which have given it its second name. Its baleen is white. 

The Humpbacked Whale consists of some seven species, of which we 
mention the North Sea Humpback [Megaptera longimanus\ and the Pacific 
Humpback [Megaptera versabilis). 

The California Gray Whale [Rachianectes glaucus ) is an oil whale, 
noticeable for its periodical migrations. It passes part of the year in the 
Arctic regions, but prefers to spend the early winter and spring on the Califor¬ 
nia coast. It was .selected for mention in our discussion of the fishes. 

The Atlantic Fin-back (. Balcenoptera rostrata) is small in size, as is also 
the Pacific Fin-back ( Balcenoptera davidsoni). 

One of the swiftest of the cetaceans is the Pacific Razor-back [Balce¬ 
noptera velifer ) and it carries the immense length of upwards of sixty feet. 

New Zealand plays So important a part in our modern life that mention 
should be made of the New Zealand Right Whale ( Balcena australiensis) , and 
the Biscayan Whale [Balcena cisarctica) deserves notice for the adventures to 
which, in times past, it gave rise. 

The Cape Whale (. Balcena antipodarum) furnishes sport and brings 
profit to the South Africans. 

The Pigmy Right Whale ( Neobalcena marginata ) is, like our other pigmy 
whale, only small when compared with the other members of its family, as it 
is frequently fifteen feet in length. Its whalebone is its point of superiority, 
and excels that of all other whales. It dwells in the waters about Australia and 
New Zealand. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


525 


The Pacific Black-fish ( Globiocephalus scammoni) swims near the coast, 
and though its oil is inferior in quality and less in quantity than that of the 
sperm whale (which is generally found in the same neighborhood), it still has 
sufficient value to make man its mortal enemy. 

The Mediterranean Grampus ( Grampus rissoanus ) is naturally the best 
known of the grampuses, since the pen of the historian, the tale of the trav¬ 
eller, and the song of the poet, have delighted in celebrating the glories of this 
world-historical region. 

The North Sea Grampus, or Gray Grampus ( Grampus griseus ), one 
meets with in tales of Arctic exploration. 

The Cape Grampus ( Grampus richardsonii ) is found usually haunting the 
southern coast of Africa, from which fact the name is given. 

The White-headed Grampus ( Grampus stearnsii) is smaller in size, but 
more striking in appearance, since its head and front present, in their white¬ 
ness, the sharpest contrast to the black which elsewhere prevails. 

The Banded Porpoise (. Phocczna lineata) is an inhabitant of the Atlantic, 
and the contrasts in its coloring are very effective. Its body is white below 
and black above, but these colors are separated on the side by a rosy-hued 
band or stripe. 

The Indian Dolphin ( Orcella fluminalis) is a fresh-water animal, rela¬ 
tively small in size, and colored like the unwashed linen of Queen Isabella, whose 
abstinence from soap and water endowed mankind with a new hue ( isabeau ), to 
which, with unusual gratitude, they have given her name. No wonder, since a 
monarch can achieve such great deeds, that some faint-hearted Americans should 
long for the coming of monarchial government, under which they seem to 
assume that they would naturally and necessarily be the ones who sat upon 
the throne. 

The Short-nosed Dolphin ( Orcella brevirostris ) grows to the length of 
eighteen or twenty feet, and although passing most of its time in salt water, 
quite frequently ascends the fresh-water streams to what, at least for his pur¬ 
poses, is the head of navigation. 

The White-beaked Dolphin ( Leucorhampus peronii ) is South American in 
its habitat, the upper and lower halves of the body are colored, the one black 
and the other white. 

The Right Whale Porpoise (. Leucorhampus borealis) is a species similar 
to the last, but going no further south than San Diego. 

The Spectacled Porpoise ( Leucorhampus perspicillatus ) belongs to the same 
family, but has black rims like spectacles above its eyes. It is tri-colored, 
black above, white below and lead-colored between. 

The Pacific Dolphin ( Leucorhampus obliquidens) is well known to those 
who visit the Pacific slope, for it surrounds the ships in large schools, and 
entertains the passengers by its gambols. It has seemingly an appreciation 
for music, even though lacking the power to create music for itself and for 
others, and amidst the limited amusements of a sea-voyage its peculiarities 
often form the theme of the story-teller, whether he be content with his own 
experiences and imaginings, or mingle with these the plentiful stores of 
Greek mythology. Its under parts are pearl-colored, the upper parts dark bottle- 
green, and its sides are striped alternately with black and gray. 

The Pacific Cow-fish ( Tursiops gillii ) is a solitary dolphin, which fre- 


526 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


quents the coast of Lower California. It is black throughout, paling, however, 
on the under parts. 

The Mediterranean Dolphin (. Delphinns de/phis) is naturally the dolphin 
of dolphins, since it has had so many Homers to celebrate its praises as an 
Achilles. As an offset to its glories, as described by the poets, fabulists and 
sentimentalists, it is a great destroyer of mackerel, which it pursues even to 
the coasts of England and of France. As u no one is a hero to his own 
valet,” the Mediterranean dolphin receives but scant praise from the fishermen. 

The Pacific Dolphin (. Delphinus bairdii) is slender in form, and has a long 
slim muzzle or snout. It is parti-colored, being dark-green above, gray on 
the sides and below, and with white streaks above the mouth, and others run¬ 
ning from the corners of the mouth to the fins, while the belly is provided 
with a large, lance-shaped white patch. 

The Ganges Dolphin (. Platanista gangetica ) has narrow jaws well supplied 
with fanged teeth, and, as its name suggests, prefers the river to the ocean. 

The species found in the Indus is known as the Indus Dolphin (. Platan¬ 
ista indi) , and that of Bolivia as the Dolphin of the Amazon (. Inia geojfroyi). 

Partaking of the same nature as the dolphin, with which it is frequently 
confounded, is the Coryphene, a somewhat larger fish and also more beautiful; 
in fact, our description of the changing colors and magnificent splendor of the 
dolphin applies more appropriately to the coryphene. The porpoise is also quite 
frequently mistaken for the dolphin, owing to the fact that their gamboling 
movements in the water are almost identical. One particular difference between 
the two is found in the fact that while the dolphin is purely carnivorous and, 
we may say, cleanly in its habits, the porpoise is something of a scavenger, 
and roots in the mud like a hog, feeding at times on worms, snails and bur¬ 
rowing mollusks, though it also commits great ravages among the fish. They 
are very sociable, and are the most familiar objects one beholds at sea. During 
a stay of some weeks at the mouth of the Mississippi, I made several short 
voyages out on the Gulf of Mexico; on each trip I met great schools of por¬ 
poises and amused myself with the somewhat cruel sport of lying in the prow 
of the boat and shooting the animals as they rolled up within a few feet of 
me. But in every instance where I succeeded in hitting one—I used only a 
small pistol—the creature would give voice to a kind of grunt and immediately 
the herd would cease rising and not another would be seen until a new school 
appeared. The grunt was evidently a note of warning. 

The Manatus, Dugong and Lamantin are all herbivorous and their flesh 
is excellent food, not inferior to beef or veal. In the Malay Archipelago the 
dugong principally abounds, and on account of the affection which the mother 
bears for its young, it is there called the water-mother. Not only does it 
exhibit rare maternal devotion, but while suckling its young, the mother holds 
it to her breast by means of her flippers in the most loving way. When 
attacked she covers her young with her body and will invariably sacrifice her 
life in its defence rather than abandon it. The three species are quite similar 
in their habits, though confined to widely-separated districts—the lamantins 
being peculiar to the South American coast, the manatus to Africa, and the 
dugong to the Malay coasts. 

The Stellar, (also called sea-calf, sea-cow and sea-bull ), found chiefly in 
the Kamtchatka seas, resembles the dugong, but its habits are little known. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


527 


ELEPHANTS. 

The Elephant {Elephas) by its wide distribution, if, as is proper, we include 
fossil forms, is one of the most striking exemplifications of the sequence of 
animal life, and of its various evolutions in accordance with changes in the 
conditions to which it succeeded. The elephant makes its appearance first during 
the period of gigantic forests and the rankest growths in the vegetable world. 
The fossil remains are found throughout the globe, with the exception of its insu¬ 
lar portions, and demonstrate that the now arctic and temperate regions were 
once tropical, and that the theory of the order of the earth’s development is correct. 
So, too, the fact that, their mission accomplished, the elephants gave way to 
orders qualified to succeed them, illustrates alike the methods and wise guid¬ 
ance of the Creator. 

The Maltese Pigmy (. Elephas melittensis ) once existed in abundance in the 
Island of Malta. It was about as large as a calf, and although the explanation 



MASTODON ANGUSTIDENS. 


of its diminutive size has not yet been certainly found, the presence of the 
fossil remains is very significant in its bearing upon the geological changes 
which scientists are convinced have taken place. The presence of this now 
extinct species in a region so far removed from the present habitat of its kind 
is likewise significant as a factor in the theory of genetic evolution, as 
announced in The Living World. Another Dwarf Fossil Elephant {Elephas 
falconeri ), while found in Malta, extends over into Italy. Although the elephant 
can swim, it is adverse to marine adventures, and hence it is reasonable to con¬ 
clude that in the palmy days of these two fossil forms the land was not, as 
now, separated by bodies of water, and the volcanic character of the Mediter¬ 
ranean region still further strengthens this conclusion. The new world, 


528 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




America, being geologically more ancient than the old world, it is not sur¬ 
prising that its fossils represent earlier forms. 

The Alaskan Mammoth (. Elephas columbi ) has furnished at least specimens 
of its teeth, and to the trained naturalist a knowledge of dentition is quite as 

much as the scale of a fish is said 
to have been to Agassiz, for he feels 
that with a tooth he can safely pro¬ 
ceed to construct the entire animal. 
The Alaskan mammoth must, it is 
concluded, have borne a close resem¬ 
blance to the Indian elephant of 
to-day. 

The Mastodon, or Mammal¬ 
toothed Elephant (. Mastodon ameri- 
canus ), seems to mark the time when 
the elephants and the classes imme¬ 
diately succeeding had not yet be¬ 
come differentiated. It was called, 
in Indian tradition, “ The Father of 

MAMMOTH DISCOVERED IN SIBERIA. all Oxen,” or “ The Original Ox,”" 

and from the fossil remains having- 
been discovered first in Ohio, it is sometimes spoken of as “The Ohio 
Beast.” A Nebraska Mastodon ( Mastodon mirificus ), a Chilian Mastodon 
(.Mastodon humboldtii ), the Lower Tusked Mastodon (. Mastodon productus ) 
have still further contributed to enrich our American museums. Europe and. 
Asia have furnished examples of the mas¬ 
todon^ and the European Mastodon may 
well have its technical name supplied as 
likely at any moment to confront the reader 
of works on Natural History; it is Mastodon 
angustidens. 

The Asiatic Mastodon (. Dinotherium ) 
was first found in India, but remains have 
since been discovered in Germany; it is 
quite distinct as a species. Its teeth in 
many ways suggest a pre-historic form of 
the tapir, and its remarkable tusks run 
towards the ground, as though designed for 
shovelling. From its dentition it is con¬ 
cluded that it lived upon soft food, of 
which there must have been an abundance 
while yet the waters were contesting the 
sovereignty of the earth. 

The Siberian Mammoth 
genius) had brown hair ne; 
length, and shaggy mane, and would appear to have wandered over Great 
Britain, France, Central and Northern Europe, Siberia, Alaska and even Oregon. 
The skeleton preserved in the Museum of St. Petersburg has a body sixteen 
feet in length and nine and a half feet high, and the weight of the entire ani¬ 
mal is estimated at twenty thousand pounds. 


(.Elephas primi- 
irly a foot in 


SKUEE OF DINOTHERIUM. 





A V I L CO.l'TH PM I LA 


WILD LIFE IN THE AFRICAN FOREST. 







/ 














§ 












% 













\ 
















THE LIVING WORLD. 


529 


Of existing members of the family the Asiatic elephant and the African 
elephant are the representatives. The African elephants differ from their Asiatic 
congeners in having extraordinarily large ears, a forehead convex and prominent, 
a head hanging down, tusks for both male and female, four horny hoofs on 
the fore feet and three on the hind feet, and callosities on the front knees. 
Until comparatively recently it was unknown in Europe. Of the Asiatic elephants 
we may name: The Indian Elephant (. Elephas indicus ), the Ceylon Elephant 
(.Elephas cingalensis) , the Sumatran Elephant ( Elephas sumatranus) , and the 
Siamese Elephant {Elephas indicus albino) . The Indian elephant is fifteen feet 
in height, and in color brown, spotted with gray. They live in moist localities 



where they can find a vigorous and abundant vegetation. Their immense size 
justifies their large appetite which requires them frequently to change to new feed¬ 
ing grounds. They live in herds which are under the patriarchal government of 
an old male. They cover the ground with great quickness, but find it difficult to 
turn or to descend declivities. Their size is about eight feet in height, by ten or 
fifteen in length. They finish their period of adolescence in about twenty-five 
years and the average subsequent duration of life is about fifty years. Some are 
used by royalty and called the koomareah; some as hunters, merghee; and the 
so-called white elephants are regarded as sacred and as being protected by the 
spirits of the ancient kings. Of course any positive statement is always met by 
equally positive denial, and therefore many excellent travellers deny that the ele- 
34 

















530 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


pliant is ever worshipped. The white elephants, rose-tinted as they are, are as strik¬ 
ing as they are relatively rare. They are albinos and simply “freaks of nature.” 

Though the people of Burmah worship the white elephant, this observance 
is not so general or so much a matter of faith with them as with the Siamese. 
Longing as the Hindoo does for the relief from earthly toil and care known as 
Nirvana, he regards the elephant as the symbol of this life in death to come. To 
him the elephant seems to have achieved all that is possible for mere body, and 
to have attained a patience which is an evidence of progress towards the envi¬ 
able state when, losing one’s identity, a person becomes a part of the mighty 
power which crushes mankind, instead of being an isolated being created appa¬ 
rently solely that he may be crushed. The palace or temple of the white ele¬ 
phant adjoins that of royalty, and the furnishing of his abode is no less regal 
and foolish. Sakyamuni. the priest and prophet, was himself at one time the 

occupant of the body of the white 
elephant. Endurance, patience, 
submission being the cardinal 
principles of his teachings, no 
wonder that religious enthusiasts 
make of themselves a tessellated 
pavement over which the white 
elephant is to walk. 

The Ceylon elephant is small, 
tuskless (or almost so), gentle and 
docile. The Sumatra elephant is 
more slender, delicate and intelli¬ 
gent. Albinos are found in all 
these species, and in Siam are 
called royal elephants. It has 
been said that the average lon¬ 
gevity of the Asiatic elephant is 
seventy-five years, but in at least 
one instance, an elephant, though 
in captivity, lived one hundred 
and fifty years. The elephant 
plays quite an important part in Asiatic history and is often hunted for its 
hide and its flesh, as well as for mere sport or adventure. When Alexander the 
Great was engaged in his conquest of the then known world, he met among 
other enemies King Porus, of India, and for the first time had to contend 
against the elephant in war. 

HOW ELEPHANTS ARE CAPTURED. 

When the Indians need a fresh supply of elephants they proceed in one of two 
ways. First they may use as decoys females trained for that purpose, and who 
occupy the attention of the males until they have been lassoed about the legs 
and securely fastened to trees. After this they are left to wear out their strength 
and grow enfeebled by hunger and thirst, until they are not wholly intractable. 
Then they are fed first upon the food which they consider least palatable, and grad¬ 
ually upon what they prefer, until they learn that their entire dependence is upon 
their captors. The other method is to build a stout corral toward which the herd 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


53i 



is driven, and which it is induced to enter by the Delilah-like behavior of female 
elephants trained for that service. Once in the corral, they are tempted one at a time 
by the female elephants into a smaller enclosure where they are made captive. 
When hunted for profit or pleasure, they are sometimes driven into pits floored 
with sharpened stakes; sometimes their feet are spiked, and sometimes they are 
shot. The vulnerable spot in the Asiatic elephant is the head. The elephant 
is grateful only in the sense of the cynic who defined gratitude as “a lively 
sense of favors yet to be received.” The behavior of the domesticated elephant, 
like that of some persons, is better in company than when at home. Jumbo, 
whose fame is known to. all in Great Britain or in America, was, it will be 
remembered, amiable 
to excess towards the 
outside world, and 
always tractable to 
his keepers at home. 

The oldest records 
exhibit the elephant 
as an important fea¬ 
ture of all oriental 
pageants. They ap¬ 
peared in the Roman 
triumphal processions 
at least two thousand 
years ago, and were 
used in a war against 
the Gallic tribes. 

The elephant is 
well known alike from 
accounts of travel or 
sport in the East, and 
as a popular member 
of all travelling me¬ 
nageries. It was well 
known in Egypt, and 
no one will have for¬ 
gotten its having been 
employed by the Car¬ 
thaginians, more es¬ 
pecially by Hannibal when he crossed the Alps for the invasion of Italy. 
Its average weight is from seven thousand to eight thousand pounds, and 
it can carry burdens equal to the united efforts of from seven to twenty 
yoke of oxen. Its proboscis is a combination of its nose and its upper lip, 
and is a singular illustration of adaptation to use. To insure the most perfect 
strength and flexibility, it is muscular and membranous, not cartilaginous. 
To give perfect control it has at its command not less than forty thousand 
muscles. To fit it for its many and varied functions, it has the utmost delicacy 
and the greatest toughness. To the elephant the proboscis has to serve the 
uses of the prehensile tail of the monkey tribe, the beak of the bird, the air- 
bladder of the fish, the nose of the hound, the tongue of the ant-eater, the 


HEAD OF AFRICAN ELEPHANT. 






532 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



tactile service of the human hand, the suction tube of the bee, the arms of the ape. 
To the elephant the proboscis represents an organ for seizing, a means of respira¬ 
tion, scent, taste, touch, suction and power of grasping. Great is its need for a 
union of sensibility and power; for it must deal with the grass as well as'with 
the full grown tree ; must be able to pick up a nail as well as to lift an engine; 
must brush off a fly as well as smite a formidable foe. The elephant believes 

in the political prin¬ 
ciple of clanship, and 
will admit to compan¬ 
ionship no elephant not 
bom within the fold, nor 
if born, if it has ever 
strayed from home. It 
recognizes no return for 
prodigal sons, and once 
an elephant strays from 
the family circle, a va¬ 
grant is he to remain for¬ 
ever, and as if he were 
an Ishmael; every ele¬ 
phant’s hand is to be 
against him, and his 
against all his fellows! 
These estrays are called 
rogues, and wandering 
about without other com¬ 
pany than their own, de¬ 
velop abnormally a 
spirit of mischief and 
malice. 

The African Ele¬ 
phant (.Elephas afri- 
canus ) is generally sup¬ 
posed to be smaller than 
his Asiatic congener, but 
authorities differ upon 
this point. Its head is 
rounded, and it has 
three instead of four 
nails on its hind feet. 
It has not in modern 
times been domesticated, 
a bull elephant defending its young. although Roman coins 

make it clear that it 

was used as a beast of burden during the continuation of Rome as a gov¬ 
ernment. Some authorities assert that the elephants used by Hannibal, 
by the Carthaginians, by the Egyptians and by the Romans, were from Africa, 
others claim that they were from Asia. Herds as large as eight hundred in 
number have been met, and three hundred is no unusual size. The male 








THE LIVING WORLD. 


533 



far exceeds in size the female. His tusks are arched, long and tapering, 
from six to eight feet in length, and weighing from fifty to a hundred pounds. 
Estimating by the annual exports of ivory (and making no allowance for the 
animals diverted to other uses) thirty thousand elephants a year are now being 
slaughtered. The ivory brings in England about one dollar and a quarter a 
pound, and is of much greater value than that furnished by the Asiatic elephant. 
The elephant, whether spraying his back in the streams of Asia and Africa, or 
exhibiting in a zoological garden his wonderful control of his proboscis, or 
carrying children about 
on its back, is always 
an object of interest. 

Stories about elephants 
are numerous and 
always exciting. The 
African elephant is, as 
travellers tell us, nat¬ 
urally amiable, and 
will attack man only 
when infuriated. But 
if the elephant does 
make a charge, it well 
behooves the hunter 
and his steed to make 
up in agility what they 
will find themselves to 
lack in speed. Unlike 
the Asiatic elephant, 
the African species is 
not vulnerable in the 
head, and he who fails 
to know or to remem¬ 
ber this will not be 
exposed to the same 
forgetfulness another 
time, even though he 
escape the conse¬ 
quences of his mistaken 
course of action. 

The natives insist 

that the elephant is hunting the tiger by means of the elephant. 

naturally jealous of the 

rhinoceros, and that this feeling extends so far that upon the mere sight of the 
rhinoceros the elephant breaks heavy branches from the trees and proceeds to 
belabor the rhinoceros and drive it hither and thither in the style of the lion 
and the unicorn, so familiar in nursery rhymes. 

The mother elephant will protect her calf at all expense, and it is quite 
affecting to see her take her calf between her fore legs and herself stand the 
brunt of all harm. A herd of elephants having been discovered swimming down 
the river and not yet having learned the possible danger of allowing the approach 








534 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


of a steam vessel, finally discovered their mistake, and all escaped but a calf, 
which was captured and towed along by its proboscis. A frenzied sportman 
slashed the proboscis with his knife, and though the wound was immediately 
sewed up the calf died—possibly from surgical malpractice. As a rule the ele¬ 
phant, like most animals in their natural state, is temperate and abstemious, 
but there are temptations which even good elephants cannot withstand. If they 
can find the right kind of tree the elephant will get drunk on unguana. Theu 
there ensues scenes of revelry similar to those which occur among men. 
Antics of all kinds; playfulness, sullenness, amiability, quarrelsomeness—all 
these are exhibited. The great creatures go reeling about until the scene looks 
almost like a Walpurgis night. Many have been the occasions when a domes¬ 
ticated elephant, escaping from a menagerie and its keeper, has spread terror 
among quiet people who neither expected nor desired their strange visitor. On 
one occasion an elephant undertook to run a foundry. Entering and putting 
to flight the merely human mechanics, it began the conduct of the shop upon 
a plan of its own. It tried hammers and other tools, and was quite happy in 
its work of devastation until at last it was tempted by a vaulting ambition to- 
fool with the heated forge, whereupon it desisted, and with a roar of anger and 
of anguish rushed forth into the street, where it was captured and led back to- 
a more orderly and familiar life. The wild elephant, as has been said, is fre¬ 
quently caught in pit-falls, so that if he escapes he retains a lively recollection 
of their possible danger. When a herd is moving, the old male, with parental 
solicitude, moves on in advance, and uses his trunk in testing every place that 
seems to him the possible trap laid by his enemies for him and his. The ele¬ 
phant loves seclusion and prefers to pass his time in the depths of the forest, 
coming forth only to get water, and this at times only once in several days. 
He never approaches nor retires from his watering place by the same routes, 
seeming never to forget that “ eternal vigilance is the price of liberty.” Ele¬ 
phants, as a rule, sleep standing, but bulls will sometimes lie down on their 
side. They take but little sleep and always feed upon awakening. They are 
destructive not solely because of their enormous appetites, but also because they 
will wantonly destroy branches which they leave untasted. 

ANECDOTES OF THE ELEPHANT. 

The fact that the elephant’s feet are padded renders his step noiseless in 
spite of his great weight, and his extraordinary nimbleness seems almost 
incompatible with his great bulk. Livingstone in his “ South Africa ” tells of 
a party of natives who hunted an elephant with spears. When first seen 
the cow was suckling her calf, and upon discovering danger at hand, imme¬ 
diately put herself between danger and her young. The natives began with a 
triumphant song, and then threw a volley of spears which fastened themselves 
in the body of the elephant. She retreated, all bleeding as she was, keeping 
guard, however, over her calf. In crossing a stream the young was killed and 
the mother shot so full of spears as to resemble a mammoth hedgehog. Upon 
discovering the loss of her calf, the cow became furious, and charged again 
and again upon the natives, who escaped only by taking advantage of the 
elephant’s inability to turn quickly. Finally, weak with loss of blood, the 
fond mother fell to the ground and, with a last roar, died and became the 
prize of the hunters. 


THE HIVING WORLD. 


535 



The elephant if not specially inclined to remember favors, seems never 
to forget or forgive an injury. The experience of the tailor is possibly so old 
>as to bear repetition. “The Discomfited Tailor” might properly be given for a 
title. It seems that a domesticated elephant, in going to water, passed this 
tailor’s shop every day and that he fell into the habit of giving it, each time, 
some elephantine tidbit. But one day, worried by tardy debtors, irritated by 
the annoyances of life, or possessed by a sudden spirit of malice, he gave the 
elephant nothing but a jab of his needle in its nose. The next day the ele¬ 
phant did not stop as it went by, but on its return drew up in front of the 
tail or and deluged him with the enormous volume of water with which he had 
filled his trunk. 

At times the calf will reciprocate the affection of the dam, although usually, 
like child¬ 
ren, they are 
too self-en¬ 
grossed to be 
thoughtful. 

The grief of 
a calf over 
its mother’s 
death is thus 
told by a 
traveller: A 
party had 
been out ele¬ 
phant-hunt¬ 
ing and had 
succeeded in 
shooting 
several be¬ 
fore the oth¬ 
ers took to 
flight. Re¬ 
turning the 
next day to 

collect their . . 

booty, they were met by a young calf elephant which ran up to them, twisted its 
trunk about their arms and legs, and seemed very much interested in securing 
their co-operation in some enterprise. Presently they approached the spot where 
lay a dead elephant, and the calf at once began running round it, attempted to 
raise it to its feet, and all the time manifested the liveliest grief and uttered the 
most pitiful moans. Finding at length that all its efforts were vain, the calf 
rejoined the travellers, as if to say, “ Now that you have slam my mother you 
must take care of the orphan.” I have spoken of the fearful destruction of 
elephants for the sake of the ivory of their tusks, but it should be added that the 
wanton wastefulness of hunters—sportsmen they can hardly be called—multiplies 
this greatly. The tusks have no roots, but grow out of perennial pulp, so that 
as necessity requires they are renewed. Bullets have been found imbedded 
in the tusks which must have lodged there while the place of their deposit 








536 


THE LIVING WORLD, 


was still soft as the tusk is at the base, and which must subsequently 
have been carried along as the new ivory below pushed along the older ivory 
above. The elephant, like man, has milk-teeth, which in due course of time 
drop out and are succeeded by the second and permanent teeth. These teeth 
are peculiar, inasmuch as each one has three different structures. On the out¬ 
side the tooth is constituted for crushing, the next layer is adapted to tearing, 
and the last layer for grinding. Perhaps, as an illustration of the inter-depen¬ 
dence of all terrestrial life, it may be worth while to mention that the invention 
of celluloid, and the discovery of vegetable ivory, has, by furnishing a substi¬ 
tute for ivory, done much to postpone the time when the elephant will be an 



ELEPHANTS IN SERVICE. 


extinct animal. Elephants have been known to have three tusks, but these 
were mere lusus natures. 

Indian elephants when domesticated are made to earn their living, not 
simply as companions to the hunter, beasts of burden on a journey, or as ele¬ 
ments of a triumphal procession of royalty. By the British they have been 
made to act as animated gun-carriages, the howitzers being securely strapped 
to their backs and fired, while in that position. By the natives they are used 
m logging ” and in piling timber, and their great strength and patient intelli¬ 
gence render them the most useful, industrious, well-behaved and uncomplaining 
of lumbermen. & 

The natives transport the ivory either in the shape of long, heavy strips 
or cut up into squares and regular figures, and we present an illustration of 





















THE LIVING WORLD. 


537 



natives thus carrying their spoils to market. The elephant is troubled with a 
highly emotional nature, and not unfrequently falls dead from excessive excite¬ 
ment. His memory is tenacious and he does not forget a kindness, even though 
he .sometimes offsets it with recollection of subsequent ill-treatment. On more 
than one occasion a traveller who has cured the wounds of an elephant has 
been held in the liveliest remembrance and recognized affectionately after pro¬ 
longed absences. At times an elephant will escape and, joining a herd of wild 
ones, will become feral in its nature. And yet repeated experience has proved 
that it recognizes the 
voice of its former 
master, and speedily 
yields to the habit of 
obedient submission. 

Still the stories about 
tame elephants turn 
mostly upon their 
avenging slights and 
wrongs. On one occa¬ 
sion a human brute, 
after having fed an 
elephant in the men¬ 
agerie, suddenly stuck 
a large pin into its 
outstretched trunk. A 
year or two later the 
same person happened 
to revisit the menag¬ 
erie, and while wholly 
unsuspicious of any 
ill-will on the part of 
the elephant, was sur¬ 
prised by its seizing 
his new silk hat, tear¬ 
ing it to tatters, and 
throwing the pieces at 
him. A traveller tells 
of the pursuit of a 
small boat by an ele¬ 
phant whose dignity 

had been disturbed by an elephant fight. 

the boatmen, and of , ^ 

the elephant being satisfied merely to pursue and constantly drench them 

with water for the distance of a mile or two. # . . 

Though the elephant’s intelligence is limited m range, it is certainly very 
great in degree. His nature is extremely emotional, and manifests itself m a sense 
of humiliation, in admiration of its own cleverness, in affectionateness as well 
as in the most terrible anger and the most abject fear. With elephants and 
the rest of the animal kingdom it is unsafe to build upon experiences with a 
single individual. The individual elephant as well as the individual human 















THE LIVING WORLD. 



“ in the books.” I may add an instance in which it being necessary for the draught 
elephants to ascend a hill by a temporary stairway, the pioneer refused to tread 
upon any plank until he had tested its security, and in case of doubt, compelled 
the builders to reconstruct their work. Upon safe arrival on the cliff, the ele¬ 
phant gambolled about as if indicating that he was well through with a hazardous 
undertaking. A smaller elephant followed, and the pioneer watched his progress 
with the most unflagging interest, and as the climber approached the top, reached 


538 

being is, to some extent at least, the creature of its temperament, surrounding- 
and training. Many stories are related to illustrate the affection and kindness 
manifested by wild elephants by surrounding and protecting the bull whose tusks 
exposed him to the cupidity of the hunter; instances, too, are numerous in which 
members of a herd have supported and assisted one of their number which had 
been wounded. 

The elephant’s knowledge of its own bulkiness, and its prudence in testing the 
solidity of stairways, bridges and similar structures, have been spoken of frequently- 


ASIATIC ELEPHANTS SPORTING. 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


539- 


over its trunk and lent it sympathy and support. When the second elephant- 
had achieved the summit, the two linked trunks and executed a short dance of 
joy. In proceeding to the banks of a stream, the commander-in-chief will halt 
his family at some distance, while he assumes the dangers and responsibilities 
of a scout. Having satisfied himself that there is no danger from pitfalls or 
from any enemy, he will return to the edge of the jungle and call forth a 
number of elephants which he posts as sentinels. After another and final scout¬ 
ing expedition he will give a signal, and the herd will rush tumultuously to 
the water’s brink. The elephant shows great fortitude under suffering caused 
by its driver, or under necessary pain inflicted by a doctor. It has been known 
when being treated with nitrate 
of silver for an affection of the 
eyes to lie unresisting, content¬ 
ing itself with suppressed moans, 
and to voluntarily submit itself 
to further treatment. In at least 
one instance a cow caught its 
badly wounded and crazy calf and 
held it firmly while its wounds 
were being dressed. In another 
case the elephant stood patiently 
while a surgeon cut out an ulcer¬ 
ated spot on its back. The pos¬ 
sible longevity of the elephant 
has been ascertained only approxi¬ 
mately, for the East Indian gov¬ 
ernment had in its daily employ 
one elephant whose services it 
had used for a full century, and 
another which had been on its 
pay-roll for fifty years. The de¬ 
coy elephants seem to learn from 
man a love of cunning, and ap¬ 
pear to enjoy the sport of cap¬ 
turing their kind. As in India 
the capture of elephants is a 

regular and fully-organized in- . 

dustry, the devices of the decoys are infinitely varied: Two decoy female 
elephants having selected the most magnificent tusker approached, him, 
Delilah-like, and once having separated him from the herd, guarded him on 
each side until the natives had slipped the noosed rope over one of his hind 
legs. They now divided their efforts, one of them keeping off the rest of 
the herd while the other wound the free end of the rope around a tree so as 
to get the advantage of a capstan. The captive having himself circled about 
the tree so as to prevent the failure of the plot, the elephant which was no 
longer occupied with the herd, drove it back while the other decoy carried out 
its original scheme. The captive finally resisting any attempt to pull it nearer 
to the tree, the elephant not busy with the rope deliberately butted it back inch 
by inch, and foot by foot, while its companion “hauled m the slack. If cap- 




540 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


tive elephants refuse to lift their front feet so that they can be noosed, the 
decoys will risk their own safety in attempting the enterprise, sometimes hold¬ 
ing up the foot by putting their own leg under the great weight. The elephants 
trained as lumbermen have the weakness of other slaves who receive for their 
hard labor “more kicks than pence.” If not kept in sight the elephant will 
quit work and use “his master’s time” in the lounging which he enjoys. An 
example of the politeness of which an elephant is capable, is furnished by the 
case of one found carrying an ebony log through the jungle to its master’s 
lumber pile. Meeting a mounted traveller where the jungle was thick and the 
road narrow, it threw down its load and backed itself into the thorns, uttering 
a sound as if to say “After you, your honor.” The traveller not being quick 
to take the hint, and to accept the civility, the elephant repeated its salute and 
its retiring again and again, until at last the rider passed by, when it returned 
to the road, picked up its burden and resumed the drudgery of life. I have 
spoken of the extreme delicacy as well as the power of an elephant’s trunk. 
This is well illustrated when the elephant is allowed to pluck a fan, and to 
use its long handled brush in keeping itself free from flies. The lightness and 
grace of its motions are then beyond those of the fairest daughters of the most 
enervating clime. An elephant will generally betray his wrong-doings by a 

certain air 
of sheep 
ishness. 
On one oc¬ 
casion the 
master 
having ar¬ 
ranged his 
oven and 
chained his 

SKELETON OE BRONTOSAURUS, FROM AMERICAN JURA. el e p h a n t , 

departed on 

some errand. As soon as he was safely out of sight, the elephant unchained 
himself, robbed the oven, and again chained himself up, being, however, unable 
to do more than to wrap the chain about his leg. The owner on his return, 
found himself dinnerless, but also found in the preternaturally innocent behavior 
of his elephant, a clue to the depredator. Of experiences in hunting there 
is no lack. A hunter was saved by falling from his horse, after which the 
-elephant continued to charge in entire disregard of the man over whose body 
it passed without doing him any further injury than that of paralyzing him 
with fear, and forcing him to conclude, measurements to the contrary not¬ 
withstanding, that the mammoth must have had a successor in the mountain 
of flesh, which, for a few moments, loomed above him. 

It is among the singular facts in elephant lore, that while the forehead is 
the vulnerable spot of the Asiatic species the heaviest balls do not seem fatal 
if fired into the forehead of the African elephant. Sir Samuel Baker relates 
that he fired three heavy bullets into the forehead of an African elephant, 
and that though the three wounds were within the space of three 
inches, they apparently were harmless. The native aggageers, when 
hunting the elephant, hamstring it, if it be awake, and cut off its trunk, if it 










THE LIVING WORLD. 


54i 


be asleep. Three of them, mounted upon their trained horses, will provoke a 
tusker to pursue one of their number while the other two follow close upon 
the heels of the elephant, changing offices if the elephant concludes to pursue 
one of the followers. As soon as the vanguard catches up to the elephant, one 
of them, throwing the reins to his companion, slips off of his horse and by a 
dexterous movement cuts the sinews of the elephant’s leg. 

While three aggageers were hunting an elephant, one of them dismounted 
just in time to find himself and horse both knocked down. The elephant 
stepped on the man’s thigh, but continued to pursue the white horse. A 
second aggageer, though on foot, successfully hamstrung the bull before it 
reached the cul de sac in the j ungle, where his own horse and the one mounted 
aggageer were penned up without possiblity of escape. A German wounded an 
elephant, which he found the next day partially devoured by a lion. Tracking 
the live game, he succeeded in mortally wounding the lion, but it did not die 
until it had charged upon the hunter, struck him with its paw on his head, 
seized him by the throat, and witnessed his dying agonies. A companion suc¬ 
ceeded in 
blowing out 
the lion’s 
brains, but 
not until the 
first hunter 
was beyond 
the need of 
mortal aid. 

The feral 
elephant, or 
domesti¬ 
cated ele- 
p h a n t , 
which has 
returned to 
a savage 

life, will still obey the orders of its former mahout or keeper. As another 
illustration of the elephant’s recollection of indignities, may be mentioned 
the fate of a practical joker, who, having given an elephant a cayenne 
sandwich, was, six weeks afterwards, deluged with dirty water. The elephant’s 
loyal service may be illustrated by an incident in the lives of two elephants em¬ 
ployed in bringing buckets of water from a stream. The larger animal robbed 
the other of his bucket, and while filling it was butted by the smaller elephant 
into mid-stream, and dropping the bucket, the rightful owner reclaimed it, and 
trotted away with his burden. A herd shows its knowledge of the ain J °f 
the hunters by placing the tuskers in the centre of a circle into which 
thev form themselves. A performing elephant, which had changed owners 
was grievously , wounded because it refused to trust an insecure platform. It 
stood the misunderstanding with only a groan of protest, and when its former 
owner was summoned, and bound up its wounds, it manifested the liveliest 
appreciation, embracing him with its trunk, and as soon as the platform had 
been strengthened, ascending it without waiting for the order. A rogue ele- 



GREAT BEAST of the coal period (Anihracotherium magnum). 






542 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


phant which had treed a hunter, deliberately constructed a platform in the 
Lope of reaching its adversary. 

An African hunter got lost in an elephant jungle, and was scented by 
the herd, but for the time being the hunter remained undiscovered. He was 
making the best of his way along an elephant path, when he suddenly came 
npon a hippopotamus, to which he conceded the right of way, although imme¬ 
diately thereafter he shot it as a proper punishment. After three days he 
came directly upon one of the elephants, and although the bullet knocked it 
over, it got up and made off. He found it again, and the elephant charged 

upon him, only to receive 
a fresh bullet. Again 
tracked, shot while charg¬ 
ing and brought to his 
knees, although still able 
to stumble to its feet 
it was powerless to do 
more than to stand still 
while the hunter finished 
it. On one occasion a 
hunter ensconced him¬ 
self in a tree, and while 
twenty elephants were 
defiling beneath him, 
broke a bull’s shoulder 
with a single shot. 

One of the most re¬ 
markable things about an 
elephant is the entire 
noiselessness with which 
it is able to move its 
vast bulk, even when 
pushing its way through 
the densest thorn. Once 
a hunter shot an ele¬ 
phant and was horrified 
to hear the shrill trum¬ 
peting of a whole herd 
by which, without his 
battle between elephant and rhinoceros. knowledge, he was sur¬ 

rounded. He was com¬ 
pelled to seek safety in the hollow of a fallen tree, and the elephants after 
vain, attempts to extract him from his hive, finally relieved his mind by their 
unwilling departure. 

CONIES (Hyrocoidea). 

Though the Conies were known to the great Greek naturalist, Aristotle, 
and are mentioned in the Bible in Proverbs : “ The high hills are a refuge for 
the wild goats, and the rocks for the conies ,” it was reserved for Agassiz to 
re-discover the cony , so to speak, and bring it within the boundary of well- 
understood animals. This creature we now know quite well, though from its 






THE LIVING WORLD. 


543 



singular characteristics we are not able to classify it, since it exhibits the peculi¬ 
arities of rodents, ungulates and the probiscidea. This little animal is now 
regarded as a transitional form from the elephant to the hoofed-animals, the 
fossil forms of toxodontia alone intervening. 

The Daman of Syria ( Hyrax syriacus) is undoubtedly the creature referred 
to in the Bible, and mistakenly called a coney or cony. Another species is 
found at the Cape of Good Hope, and is called by the natives the Klipdach 
(Hyrax capensis). Still another species, the Mozambique Daman ( Hyrax 
arboreus ) is found in South Africa, while the Daman of Guinea ( Hyrax 
yylvestris) is represented in West Africa. There are yet other species, but these 
are the ones best known. 

The Daman of Syria, or coney of the Bible, is about the size of a rabbit, 
and is dressed in coarse fur of a 
brown color. It feeds upon plants 
.-and shrubs, makes its nests in the 
rocks, is susceptible of domestica¬ 
tion, and possesses neither value 
nor interest, except in so far as 
it vindicates the accuracy, as well as 
the effectiveness, of Bible imagery, 
the mistakes to which well-meaning 
and careful students are exposed, 
and from the endless vexation which 
it has occasioned both Biblical stu¬ 
dents and naturalists. It is said 
always while feeding to station sen¬ 
tinels and scouts, who announce by 
a shrill cry the approach of any¬ 
thing to be feared. The Klipdach 
has, so far as known, no character¬ 
istics different from the daman of 
Syria. The Mozambique daman is 
spotted along the back and wears 
longer hair, while the daman of 
New Guinea is arboreal, living in 

the hollows of trees. The damans conies {Hyrax syriacus). 

have the appearance of a furred or 

woolly pig which has lost its tail, or at least so much of it as to leave nothing 
but a rudimentary, fleshy, round root. Its face is not unlike that of a cat or 
monkey, while the longer, light-colored hair which, extending from the under 
jaw to its breast and including the cheeks, has all the appearance of a short fur 
bib or tucker. The paws are padded, hoofed and clawed, and instead of being 
uniformly four-toed, its hind feet have but three. 


TOXODONS. 

The Toxodon, or Bow-toothed Fossil, is of interest as an apparently 
- connecting-link between the daman and the ungulate. In size it is about the 
stature of the hippopotamus, and exhibits structural resemblances to the hoofed- 
animals, the rodents, the ant-eaters and armadillos, and to the dugongs and 


544 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


manatees. The skull slopes forward and upward, and is flattened. The uppei 
jaw contains four incisors and seven molars; the lower jaw, six incisors, six 
molars and two canines; the molar teeth are rootless and exhibit the power of 
continuous growth. The trunk and limbs are like those of the elephant and 
of hoofed-animals. The shoulder blade is like a tapir’s, and the bone of the 
upper part of the arm like that of the rhinoceros; the foot resembles most nearly 
that of an elephant. The toxodon has been discovered only in pieces, and some 
of his members are still missing, but as the naturalist was able to reconstruct 
the fish from a single scale, so he has filled out in plaster what would seem 
to be the necessary substitutes for the missing parts. To go into a large and 
carefully arranged museum (of which we have several in this country, as that 
in New York or the one in Boston), is interesting only to one who brings with 
himself knowledge enough to cause him to take an active and intelligent interest. 
Doubtless many a one has, like myself, in my earlier days, stared ignorantly 

at the re¬ 
in ai n s of 
the mega¬ 
therium or 
of the mas¬ 
todon, and 
wondered 
what possi¬ 
ble obj ect 
there could 
be for such 
e x p e n di- 
ture of time, 
labor and 
money. But 
once get the 
idea of the 
evolution, 

skeleton oe the phenacodus prim^evus. progres¬ 

sion, and 

precession of animal life, and all that is changed. It is my hope to make only 
such mention of extinct forms as shall illustrate the principle of modem scientific 
investigation, and possibly to induce the reader to make real the illustrations by 
visits to museums, where the representative types can be found. Who, in a tour 
of observation, ever realizes the wealth of enjoyment, information and stimulus 
which can be derived from the museums of our great cities ? Rather, do not most 
travellers go through these repositories with even greater weariness and ignorance 
than they do the art galleries ? Does the typical traveller (and the Americans are 
a nation of travellers) ever think of concerning himself deeply about museums 
of natural history, academies of fine arts, the great organized industries of manu¬ 
facture and commerce, or the libraries whose shelves contain wonders to them 
unknown ? Or does he return with nothing better than a hasty view at parks, 
buildings and cemeteries; or than a knowledge of the superficial differences in 
dress, and furniture and viands ? When Addison visited Italy he took with him 
knowledge only of such scenes and objects as the poets had touched upon, and 



THE HIVING WORLD. 


545 



returned in entire ignorance of what had been described in prose. Yet Addison 
was an intelligent man, whose outfit, partial as it was, far exceeded that of most 
modern travellers. What can be the significance of a visit to the field of 
Waterloo for one who does not know the great events to which this battle was 
the close? What possible interest can Westminster Abbey have to a visitor 
ignorant of all that makes it so significant as the resting-place of England’s 
vanished heroes ? But with guidance no greater than I can hope to furnish 
here, the reader will find that, having something to see with, as well as to look 
at, that which before was wearisome will become the source of active pleasure. 

The Nesodon as yet exists for us only in the shape of skull and teeth, 
but it seems that he must have been a smaller species, more nearly approaching' 
the hoofed-animals. 

UNGULATES—TAPIRS AND RHINOCEROSES. 


We have now reached the order of Hoof Animals, or Ungulates ( Ungu - 
lata). The hoof is hardened and of modified skin, which forms a case for the 
last joint, and serves 
as a substitute for 
the soles or pads 
found in the ele¬ 
phant. The ungu¬ 
lates walk upon the 
ends of their toes, 
and hence the use¬ 
fulness, if not the 
cause, of their con¬ 
formation. The un¬ 
gulates are sub-di¬ 
vided according as 
they have one toe 
or two : those which 
live on dry ground 
having one toe, and . 
those which live in 
marshes, two. The 
ungulates illustrate 
the method by which 
these changes are 
brought about in na¬ 
ture. First, in loco¬ 
motion upon ground, 
the middle toe re¬ 
ceived most of the 

burden and developed at the expense of the others, which, as they became more 
and more useless, grew more and more rudimentary. 

The Odd-toed Ungulates (Perissodactyla) have the axis passing through 
the third toe (if there be so many as three or more than three). They are large¬ 
sized animals, thick skinned, have sparse if any hair, and their skulls are elon¬ 
gated. The earliest fossil form is called phenacodon , which was succeeded by 
the lophiodon tidce and the calico theriidce. These animals show the reduction 

35 


















THE LIVING WORLD. 


546 

to three toes, and the beginning of the change from tubercular teeth to the 
crescent pattern of the horse. Then come the palceotheridcz and the original 
rhinoceroses. These have but three toes, which indicate an approaching dimi¬ 
nution of number. 

The Tapir stands between the elephant and the hog. The American 
Tapir, or Mborebi ( Tapirus aniericanus , or terrestris) , is found abundantly in 
the South American tropical forests. It keeps near the water, of which it is 
very fond, and contrary to the popular idea in regard to the swine family, it 
is an excellent diver and swimmer. Its height is about four feet, and its build 
is proportionately strong. Its hide is a protection, as it rushes through thorns 
and brambles. It is naturally peaceful, but if wounded becomes aggressive 



HUNTER ATTACKED BY A WHITE RHINOCEROS. 


and dangerous. It whistles instead of grunting, but unlike the hog exercises 
its vocal powers but seldoln. Its color is brown, and it wears a short, standing, 
black mane. While young it is generally spotted and striped with yellow. 
It is susceptible of domestication, but its size and active curiosity are adverse to 
its becoming a favorite and a pet. Its habits are nocturnal, and it remains true 
to the single mate which it has selected. 

The Central American Tapir (Elasmognathns bairdi ) is black or blackish- 
brown ; the cheeks and sides of the neck, red ; the chest, throat and chin, gray. 
It exceeds in sifce the American tapir. 

The European Tapir, Malayan Tapir, or Kuda-ayer ( Tapirus , indicus or 
malayanus ), has its body so clothed in white as to suggest its having run off 






THE LIVING WORLD. 


547 



with some one’s clothes-line, or its being engaged for a sheet and pillow-case 
party. The deep black of the rest of the body renders the contrast quite 
startling. It has no mane, but triumphs over its American congener by pos¬ 
sessing a much longer proboscis, as well as in size. It is not a swimmer. 

The White Rhinoceros (.Rhinoceros simus ) is nocturnal in its habits, about 
six and a half feet in length, acute of hearing, keen-scented, near-sighted. Its 
speed, when hurried, is greater than a man’s and less than a horse’s. It wears 
two horns, of which the front one is straight, flat, and from a foot and a half 
to four feet in 
length, while 
the posterior 
one is much 
shorter. It is 
one of two 
white species, 

| is larger than 
the black spe¬ 
cies, has an 
elongated head, 
the muzzle of 
which, how- 
i ever, is square. 

It is patient 
even when at¬ 
tacked, unless 
it has young 
to protect. On 
| one such occa- 
| sion a rhino¬ 
ceros turned, 
thrust its horns 
into the belly 
of a horse, and 
having thrown 
it off of its feet 
retreated with- 
out attacking 
the hunter. It 
has Africa as 

its habitat. INDIAN rhinoceros. 

The Long¬ 
horned White Rhinoceros (.Rhinoceros oswellii) is rare, and is found only far 
in the interior of Africa. The front horn is curved forward, so as to enable 
it the better to tear up the ground, an exercise in which it often indulges. It is 
sufficiently long for manufacture into various weapons and walking canes. 
Though the rhinoceros may be found in company with others, this association 
is purely accidental, as it is in no sense gregarious. 

The Keitloa, Equal-horned, or Blue Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros keitloa ), 
though smaller than the white, charges an enemy without waiting to be attacked. 




548 THE LIVING WORLD. 

In spite of its name it is pale yellow. Its horns are of equal length. It is often 
called the black rhinoceros. 

The Two-horned Borneo Rhinoceros ( Ceratorhinus sumatrensis) has its 
skin folded, not into shields, but into capes on the shoulders and haunches. It is 
of a dark slate color, and measures about eight feet in length. 

The Rhinoceros of Assam ( Ceratorhinus lasiotis) is taller, smoother and 
paler than the preceding and is light brown in color. 

The Indian Rhinoceros (. Rhinoceros unicornis , or indicus) } is one-horned, 
about ten feet in length, and its skin is formed into a number of shields, which 
are covered with tubercles. The folds of the collar come off into a dewlap, 
and the shields over the withers and each fore leg is triangular; the hindquar¬ 
ters are shielded as far as the knee-joint. It is about eight or nine feet in 
length and weighs several thousand pounds. This is the rhinoceros which is 
read of in Roman history and which is most frequently seen in our zoological 

gardens and museums. Its 
habitat is Hindostan. 

The Rhinoceros of 
Java (Rhinoceros javanus) 
is smaller, has a larger up¬ 
per lip, and a larger neck 
shield, which is saddle- 
shaped. It is nocturnal in 
its habits and does great 
damage to the coffee and 
pepper plantations, and to 
cultivated plants. It is 
more amiable than most of 
its kind. 

The Rhinoster (. Rhi¬ 
noceros bicornis ) has two 
horns, which are brown, 
tinted with green. It is 
about eleven or twelve feet in length, and yellowish-brown in color. It is 
found at the Cape of Good Hope, and is called the borele , or little black 
rhinoceros. The front horn is long and bent backwards ; the other, short and 
conical. It is very active, frequently aggressive,, very fierce, and very dangerous. 
It sometimes quarrels with its own kind. It is nocturnal, and sleeps soundly 
during the day. Like the other rhinoceroses, it uses its horn to dig up roots. 
Its tendon Achilles or most vulnerable part is back of the shoulder. 

The fossil forms are the aceratherium , which has four toes and no horn; 
the canopos , which reduces still further the toes of the front foot to three; the 
aphelops , which had achieved the teeth and horn; the diceratherium , which 
exhibits two rudimentary horns; the Siberian Rhinoceros (. Rhinoceros tricho- 
rhinus) which persisted longer than the mammoth and which was covered with 
long hair. 

The young of the rhinoceros have no horn, and the development of this 
weapon extends over many years. It is not set in the skull, but is held only 
by the skin, from which it may easily be separated. As an illustration of the 
wounds which they inflict upon each other mention may be made of the shoot- 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


549 

ing of^one animal which had had a handsbreadth of hide and flesh torn from 
him. His own horns consisted of one two feet in length, and a second which, 
though but three-quarters of a foot, was as sharp as the finest dagger. They 
are sometimes trapped by the natives whose device is quite ingenious. As the 
animal is very wary, a pit is dug in the path by which he returns to his rest- 
ing-place, and spikes, like the spokes of a wheel, are attached to a rope and 
placed therein—the other end of the rope is then made fast to a heavy log, 
and every precaution is taken 
in covering the pit-fall to give it 
the appearance of having pre¬ 
viously been walked over by 
the rhinoceros. If he does not 
suspect the device he steps 
upon the mere covering of 
earth, falls upon the spikes, 
which tangle him up in the 
rope, and though he escapes and 
drags the log some distance, he 
is easily followed and dispatched. 

His horn is no part of his skull, 

. and can be removed by cutting 
away the skin. It rests upon 
an arch, formed by the bones of the face, and thus protects the brain from 
concussion. This horn was formerly regarded as a discoverer of the presence 
of poison, and was therefore manufactured into drinking cups for the nobility. 
The fact that the rhinoceros seems, as a rule, not to attack when it has a fair 
view of its object, would seem to indicate that its apparently wanton fury 
towards logs and trees and other senseless things, arises from its imperfect 
vision and its distrust of novelties. The thickness of the skin makes it proof 
against insects, a protection much needed by a creature of its habits. 

Although R. simus is generally spoken of as the white rhinoceros, there is 
not much difference of color between it and R. bicornis. It is a huge ungainly 
beast, with a disproportionately large head, a large male standing six feet six 
inches at the shoulder. Like elephants and buffaloes they lie asleep during 
the heat of the day, and feed during the night and in the cool hours of early 
morning and evening. Their sight is very bad,- but they are quick of hearing 
and their scent is very keen; they are, too, often accompanied by rhinoceros birds 
(.Buphaga africana :), which, by running about their heads, flapping their wings 
and screeching at the same time, frequently give them notice' of the approach 
of danger, and are further of service in ridding them of parasites. When dis¬ 
turbed, they go off at a swift trot, easily distancing a man on foot, but they 
are no match for a good horse. 

The anterior horn of a full-grown animal is from eighteen inches to over 
four feet in length, a cow having a thinner and usually a longer horn than a 
bull. Occasionally they are curved backward, but generally straight and flat¬ 
tened by friction on the anterior surface. The posterior horn may vary from 
three or four inches to two feet, and there appears to be as much variation in 
relative length as in individuals, which fact has led to no little confusion in 
fixing the species definitely. 







550 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



The rhinoceros is said to be easy to kill if one shoots him in the neck in 
the region of the withers. But on the other hand, the animal is not pos¬ 
sessed of such amiability and weakness as to render him a desirable foe. Of 
course most hunters are led by their pride to describe their own skill and 
prowess, rather than the exciting adventures which terminated in their favor, and 
the reader is less affected by the boasted skill of a hunter unknown to him 
personally than by the dangers of the sportsman which so appeal to the imagi¬ 
nation. An African traveller relates an amusing incident by which he 
came near losing his camp equipage, while discovering that a red blanket 
was as objectionable to a rhinoceros as to a mad bull. The creature hav¬ 
ing gored the blanket and having thus acquired an unexpected and unlooked 

for ornament which not 
only blinded his eyes but 
also interfered with the 
natural use of his front 
legs, started off, blanket 
and all, and ran a race 
like that of Cowper’s 
celebrated John Gilpin, 
only having to “ carry 
weight ” in the shape of 
a fatal ball; the rhinoce¬ 
ros ran in only onedirec 
tion until his life’s blood 
had ebbed away. It not 
unfrequently happens 
that unskilful native- 
hunters will wound the 
rhinoceros only superfi¬ 
cially and then the crea¬ 
ture will at once “ carry 
the war into Africa,” and 
if Africa is not both 
spry and lucky he will 
not be let off with being 
chased hither and 
thither. Presently it 

HEAD OE INDIAN RHINOCEROS. -ii i r i r 

will be found as unfor¬ 
tunate to supply the native African with fire-arms as a similar experi¬ 
ment has always proved in the case of the North American Indians, for they will 
speedily render extinct animals which will yet be needed for the support of a 
by no means limited population. Of course the costliness of the trip keeps the 
number of European sportsmen within limits, but re-enforced by the natives, no 
game preserves can be expected to hold out. So far as the rhinoceros is con¬ 
cerned, it must not be forgotten that as a food-animal it is held in high 
esteem. Naturally, when accompanied by its cub, the rhinoceros is specially 
dangerous; the cub, however, if taken away from “ its deceased parent,” will 
not object to consorting with domestic oxen and cows. An exciting ride on a 
rhinoceros, which, though not resulting fatally to the rider, discouraged fur- 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


ther experiments, is related by a traveller. While hunting, a kaffir used his 
oppprtunity to jump upon the back of a rhinoceros. The creature, mad from 
so unaccustomed a burden, ran wildly but swiftly and every moment bore the 
rider further and further from hope of relief. To tumble off was fatal, for then 
the rhinoceros would charge upon him ; to stay on was not only uncomfortable 
and dangerous, but was rapidly growing impossible. Finally the native took 
off his blanket and threw it upon a bush in front of the rhinoceros. Seeming 
now to have discovered its tormentor, the animal charged into the blanket 
while the kaffir slipped off and beat a hasty retreat. In a case where there 
was a double charge, the shooting of one seemed only to further infuriate the 
other which charged and charged again, until it fell a victim to its own invinci¬ 
ble courage, 
down, and 
owed his final 
escape to the 
contemptuous 
magnanimity 
of the rhino¬ 
ceros. The 
rhinoceros 
and hunter 
coming sud¬ 
denly upon 
each other, the 
animal was 
ready but the 
hunter was 
not. The crea¬ 
ture charged 
so fiercely as 
to carry the 
man off his 
feet, while it 
passed clear 
over him and 
dug its horns 
i n t o t h e 

ground. But before the hunter could scramble up the rhinoceros recovered itself 
and charged again, this time ripping the flesh the full length of the hunter’s leg. 
Having thus avenged its wounded honor, the creature stalked away with the 
greatest indifference to the recent object of its wrath. 

The gladiatorial shows are best known to us through the extravagant 
public spectacles provided by Roman politicians, as we rarely think of the 
Spanish bull-fights in the same light. But among the barbarian natives of 
Asia, and specially of Africa, the value of human prowess leads to frequent 
royal amusements of this kind. Seated in an amphitheatre, carefully protected 
against the intrusion of the animals in the arena, the savage monarch, his 
courtiers and attendants, watch the contests between all kinds of pugnacious 
animals. At one time two ugly-tempered rhinoceroses will be irritated to 


On another occasion a surprised hunter was twice knocked 


KEITLOA, OR BI.ACK RHINOCEROS. 





THE LIVING WORLD. 


552 

frenzy and then pitted against each other. One will be painted red, or yellow, 
or blue, and the other white, or red, or green, in order that one may follow 
every movement of each combatant. They will fight until exhausted, trying 
to oppose head and jaw to each other’s horns, and thus to escape the throat 
thrust which finally gives the victory to the conqueror. Native attendants will 
from time to time throw water upon them that their energies may be taxed to 
the utmost. # 

Again, two male tusked elephants will be driven to combat with each 
other, and will shriek and struggle, and charge again and again until success 
falls to the share of one of them. 

Still again, a man will be pitted against an excited elephant, and the 



RHINOCEROS HUNTERS. 


spectators watch the contest between power and subtlety until either the elephant 
seizes the man and pins him to the ground with his knees, while it viciously 
gores him with his tusks, or the native, using the opportunity, succeeds in 
hamstringing his bulky foe. 

Yet again, rhinoceros and elephant will be joined in a death struggle; 
the one endeavoring to rip the other to pieces, and the other to put his enemy 
under his feet and grind him to powder. Two buffalo bulls will lock horns 
and butt each other, until at last one is successful in pushing back its foe, and 
forcing it to resign the contest; and finally, natives, with their hands clad 
in the skin and claws of the lion, the leopard, the tiger, or the panther, will 
fight like wild beasts until one or both fall dead. 






THE LIVING WORLD. 


553 



While a party of hunters were occupied in cooking an antelope, a rhino¬ 
ceros intruded upon the camp, scattered all the camp equipage, and after having 
been wounded by an elephant-gun, calmly walked away. The next day the 
hunters tracked him and shot him anew, but even then he compelled them all to 
.seek refuge in the trees, while it galloped off to a jungle and began mixing up its 
tracks. It was again tracked and shot, and a second time the hunters were obliged 
to climb a tree. Finally its immense power of vitality began to be exhausted, 
and it at last succumbed to the succession of bullets buried in its flesh. On 
another occasion six rhinoceroses charged upon and treed the hunters, though 
one of them was driven, torn and 
bleeding, for a long distance through 
the thorns. A tracking of one of 
the creatures resulted in a new 
exhibition of rapid climbing, and 
thus the pursuit went on with vary¬ 
ing fortune until the rhinoceros 
had received nine mortal wounds. 

Two sleeping rhinoceroses were 
surprised by hunters, and charging 
one of them, although receiving the 
contents of a gun directly down its 
throat, was able to first trot away 
and then to gallop off. Seven 
mounted hunters chased the pair 
for two miles, running neck and 
neck, but were never able to get 
nearer than two yards distant. On 
another occasion a keitloa or two¬ 
horned rhinoceros escaped on the 
run, after receiving a sabre cut from 
the aggageer—a small feat for an 
animal which, apparently, can run 
as fast and as long on three feet 
as on four. 

Rhinoceroses are trapped as fol¬ 
lows : A two-foot hole is dug in the 
pathway which he frequents, and a 
running-noose is laid on top of a 
hubless wheel whose sharpened 
spokes overlap, the other end of an unprovoked attack. 

the rope having been made fast to 

a large tree planted slantingly at some distance. Rope and wheel are 
buried, and the ground smoothed over with a branch, in order to destroy the 
human scent. The animal, upon putting its foot into the hole, nooses his leg 
while the wheel renders release impossible. The five or six hundred pounds 
weight of tree the rhinoceros will drag after it, until being caught by the trees 
he becomes a captive doomed to death, for his intelligence. is insufficient to 
suggest to him the cutting of the rope. A hunter, having dismounted and tied 
his horse, soon espied a rhinoceros charging directly upon the steed, and 






554 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


nothing but a lucky shot prevented the change of an equestrian into a pedes¬ 
trian. Once, when one of a couple was wounded, the unharmed one returned 
and, adjusting his pace to that of his companion, walked off in his company. 
The next day the wounded rhinoceros was found lying dead, while its compan¬ 
ion stood guard over the body. Upon receiving bullet wounds it fell repeatedly, 
but until its strength was utterly exhausted it always struggled to its feet 
and again charged upon the hunters. 

UNGULATES.—HORSES. 


The Tarpan, or Wild Horse (.Equus caballus ), is found throughout the 
steppes of Asia, and of the Oural Mountain region. These uninviting prairies 



RHINOCEROS EIGHT. 


are, except when carpeted with green and illuminated by flowering shrubs, awe¬ 
inspiring from their seeming want of limits, and excite dread from the wearying 
sameness and unattractive barrenness which surrounds one on all sides. Think 
of the ocean as frozen, but with the ice covered with dust, which from time to 
time is hurled hither and thither by fierce blasts of wind; think of the deso- 
lateness of such motionless water, the dreary sameness of the prospect, and the 
unreasoning terror inspired by mere immensity, and we may form some slight 
idea of these terrestrial seas. Still even here is animal life, and life so consti* 
tuted as to flourish where even the imagination of man sinks awe-stricken and 
exhausted; even here is Divine wisdom displayed in peopling these vast realms 
















THE LIVING WORLD. 


555 



witli creatures who require no other environment. If we regard the tarpan as 
the' original of the modern horse, and these steppes as the cradle of the species, 
what vistas of antiquity, what 
forcible suggestion of aeons 
during which the changes 
were worked which distinguish 
the tarpaii from the famous 
Bedouin steed, or from the 
blooded stock of Kentucky. 

What an illustration of that 
possible change for which mo¬ 
dern science accounts by the 
theory of natural selection! 

If, on the other hand, we 
choose to regard the tarpan as 
finding his ancestors in horses 
which straggled from the habi¬ 
tations of man or from the 
herds of wild horses, what an 
illustration is this return to 
a more primitive type of the scientific doctrine of degeneracy as the comple¬ 
ment of the doctrine of evolution. Zoology still regards either answer as doubt¬ 
ful, but as has 
been said, either 
view leads to 
the same con¬ 
clusion in regard 
to the adapta¬ 
tion of life to 
its conditions. 
The tarpan 
lacks the grace 
offoim, the sug¬ 
gestion of facile 
but vigorous 
power, and the 
beauty which 
has made the 
horse so favor¬ 
ite an illustra¬ 
tion that even 
the Bible again 
and again em¬ 
ploys the type 
i n completing 
i t s wonderful 

A SHOT AT CLOSE QUARTERS. simileS. 

The tarpan does not even look like the horse; his stature may be fully as 
great as that of the useful broncho, but his want of symmetry suggests rather 






THE LIVING WORLD. 


556 

the misplaced body of the sheep than the proper body for even the small horse. 
His legs are lean and lank instead of exhibiting that tapering from thigh to 
fetlock which even the sorriest equine specimen possesses. His coat of hair is 
so coarse, so rough, as to suggest some wool-bearing animal, rather than the 
hairy apparel of even the least-cared-for specimen of the species horse. Even 
the woolly horse of the great showman was sleek and well curried in compari¬ 
son. The tarpan replaces the mane, which is as distinctive of the horse as the 
pig-tail is of the “celestial,” by bushy, furzy side-whiskers which extend the 
whole length of his jaw. The month and nostrils, too, are “bearded like a 
pard,” and suggest the organs of a goat; the ears are niggardly in appearance 
because set far backhand looking like those of some cropped wolf; the forehead 



THE fallen MONARCH beset by hyenas, jackals, vultures and lions. 


projects, the curves of the body are all replaced by straight lines, so that taken all 
in all the tarpan looks as if he might have come out of a Noah’s ark constructed 
for the amusement of the children of a Titan. Finally there is hardly a varia¬ 
tion of color, since the dirty whitish-brown which belongs to most tarpans , passes 
in exceptional cases into' nothing but a blacker or a whiter shade. They are 
gregarious to but a slight degree, since a herd will rarely exceed twenty-five 
in number, unless the necessity for seeking other lands, or the presence of some 
great danger happens to unite several herds into a troop. Still the tarpan is 
adapted by structure and by habits to life upon the steppes, for his diminutive 
stature causes him to require less food; his life in small herds renders it more 












THE LIVING WORLD. 


557 

possible to find subsistence in a land where the deserts are more numerous than 
the oases; his covering is more suitable for protection in a region whose climate 
consists simply in violent, sudden and trying changes, while his appearance 
must be a protection against his easy discovery by the wolves, which prey upon 



FRONT VIEW. JURA. 



him and his. So likewise his flight across the steppes enlivens the prospect, 
while to the barbarians who inhabit the neighboring region, his pursuit as game, 
or his capture for the service of man, is highly exciting. The flesh of this, 
animal, like that of the horses 
which now supply the cheaper 
markets of France, may not be 
tempting to those who can have 
the equal of “the roast beef of 
old England,” but to pervert a 
proverb, tastes differ, and the 
Cossack would turn in disgust 
from the less palatable flesh of 
ox, or deer, or bird. 

The cowboy of the period 
and his Mexican rival are not 
the only experts in the use of 
the lasso, for the barbarians of 
the steppes have from time im ¬ 
memorial practised this art so 
celebrated since our travellers 
for pleasure have told and written 
of the ranches of the West. 

The tarpan is naturally docile tarpan, or wild horse. 

and speedily subjects himself 

to the service of his captors, whether this be to act as the military war- 
horse of this martial people, the less pampered animal that carries his. 
master in his nomadic life, or the patient beast which returns his fodder in the 
form of flesh upon which his master shall subsist. In any or all of these 






THE LIVING WORLD. 



558 

functions, the tarpan must have the spirit of the horse united to the donkey’s 
patient endurance, hardiness and capability of making a hasty, but sufficient, 
meal off of anything that can be digested by anything less omnivorous than 
a shark. That the tarpan can answer all these expectations would seem to 
suggest that his degree of evolution must have had reference to the functions 
which he was to be called upon to discharge. Though in case of need the 
Cossack not merely “ lives upon his horse,” but subsists upon him, he will under 
other circumstances treat him with the care and kindness which so useful a 
creature deserves, and which results in a mutual affection such as is familiar 


WILD ASSES OF THIBET. 

to us iu the case of the Arab of the desert. Who has not responded to Caroline 
Norton’s ooetical account of the Arab and his steed? 

“My beautiful! my beautiful! that standest meekly by, 

With thy proudly arched and glossy neck, and dark and fiery eye ! 

Fret not to roam the desert now with all thy winged speed, 

I may not mount on thee again, thou’rt sold my Arab steed! 

* . * * * * * * * 

Will they ill-use thee? If I thought—but no, it cannot be, 

Thou art so swift, yet easy curbed ; so gentle, yet so free.” 

Such, too, is the feeling of the Cossack, and the need for “Humane Societies” 
among more highly civilized men would seem to lend point to the cynicism 
which defined gratitude as a lively sense of favors yet to be received. Doubtless 
the Cossack is an inferior man, and the tarpaji but a sorry specimen of the 
horse, and yet each teaches a lesson which might lead one to conclude that 
possibly religious superstition is not in all respects so harmful as “enlightened 
skepticism and agnosticism.” The tarpan is considered by the latest authorities 
not the ancestral horse, but the descendant of domesticated animals which has 





THE LIVING WORLD. 


559 



reverted to a state of nature. The South American horses are known to be 
the descendants of twelve European horses deserted by colonists in 1537. The 
horses of Mexico, likewise, are known to have sprung from the few animals 
brought over by the early Spaniards. 

The wild horse of the pampas in reverting at least towards the ancestral 
stock has undergone these changes: An increase of size in head and ears, an 
enlargement of the joints, a difference in character of coat, and a resumption 
of dun as a color; any dappling is regarded as indicative of zebraic descent. 

The Ass, or Onagra (Asinus onager , Asinus sylvestris , Equus onager ), sug¬ 
gests that uncomplaining submission which invites martyrdom and real con¬ 
tentment with the merely useful, which in spite of the boast that “peace hath 
her conquests,” 
made the satirist 
declare that 
homely features 
should be worn 
at home. Still, 
in its primitive 
condition, before 
degraded by the 
treatment of man¬ 
kind, the ass had 
all the qualities 
which we look 
for in the no¬ 
blest horse. The 
07 iagra , or free 
wild ass of the 
steppes, like the 
animal described 
by Job, is an ob¬ 
ject calculated to 
excite sincere 
admiration: 

“ Who hath sent 
out the wild ass 

free? or, who African wild ass. 

hath loosed the , , , 

bands of the wild ass ? Whose house I have made the wilderness, and the 
barren land his dwellings. He scorneth the multitude of the city, neither 
regardeth he the crying of the driver. The range of the mountains is his pas¬ 
ture ” Unlike the tarpan, the onagra is well proportioned, his legs graceful 
vet strong-, his skin sleek and either a handsome gray or light brown, and 
his spirit “ proud as Lucifer’s.” When captured, he becomes no mere despised 
beast of burden, but is the loved companion of his master m his wanderings, 
and shares with him the dangers and glories of war, the frequent demands of 
peace, or the care of supporting the household. The onagra lives gregariously, 
for, unlike the tarpan, he is intelligent enough to migrate regularly according 
to the seasons. The onagra , or koulan, has generally been called the wild ass, 




5 6° 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



DAW AND QUAGGA OF AFRICA. 


but, as in the case of the tarpan, more recent investigations have raised the 
question whether it is really a wild animal or a feral one (that is, one which 
has returned to a state of savagery); and it would seem as if the ancestor of 
both horse and ass must be sought among the fossil forms. The color of the 

onagra is pale red in summer 
ft and gray in winter, while the 

" streak along the back is black.. 

Its habitat is on the plains of 
Persia and Mesopotamia, and the 
shores of the Indus. It is diffi¬ 
cult to capture and is not domesti¬ 
cated except in Bombay. In. 
fleetness the onagra exceeds the 
swiftest horse, and with the ad¬ 
vantage of uneven ground, its; 
speed is unapproachable. It lives; 
in troops, and alternates between 
the mountains and the high, 
plains, according to the season.. 
It is hunted partly because of 
the difficulty of its capture, and 
partly because of the delicacy 
of its flesh, which is no more 
like that of the horse “ than Hyperion to a satyr, being, by far, superior.” 

The Hemione, Kiang, Koulan, Half-ass, Mountain Ass, Dgiggitai,, 
Dzigethai (.Equus polyodon ), 
has, as will be seen, as many 
names as a Spanish nobleman, 
but as no one can tell with 
which one my readers may 
meet, we give them for the 
only purpose of a name—iden¬ 
tification. ' It has a brown body, 
white belly and legs, a short 
mane, and a mere tuft as an 
ornament for its tail. Though 
Asiastic by birth, he is in the 
modern spirit, not hide-bound 
by a narrow patriotism, and 
hence is now making efforts 
to become naturalized and do¬ 
mesticated in Great Britain. 

He is speedy, intelligent, will¬ 
ing, like most continental im¬ 
migrants, to live frugally and 
work industriously for his living. His fur is short, smooth, and in color bay.. 
He neighs like a horse, has no stripes (unless these are inflicted by his cap- 
tors), has his habitat on the table lands of Thibet, and sometimes reaches in 
stature as much as fourteen hands. On his native heath he roams about as a. 


THE ZEBRA. 








THE LIVING WORLD. 561 

member of a small herd of ten or a dozen, and is an exciting object of the 
chase to his would-be captors. 

The Wild African Ass ( Equus tceniopus ) is found in Eastern Egypt and 
Abyssinia, and inhabits alike highland and lowland, the fertile Nile Valley and 
the arid desert. The wild ass of Africa is very beautiful in form and fleet in 
motion, but as yet has had its claims to notice obscured by the favor shown to the 
other mammalia. Sir Samuel Baker, whose felicitous and trustworthy accounts 
of his African experiences have already been referred to, when speaking of the 
wild ass, selects the equus tceniopus as the type. The stripes are distinct on the 
shoulders, and faintly traced on the legs. It is four and three-quarters feet (or 
fourteen hands) in height; is the best type of the thoroughbred, and is beauti¬ 
fully marked, as its cream color is distinctly tinged with bay, red or dark 
crimson hues. 

The Quagga [Equus quagga, or Asinus quagga,) is said to have derived its 
name from its peculiar cry. The ground-color is blackish-brown above, and 
white for belly, hindquarters and legs. The quagga wears lateral stripes from 
its head well back upon its body. It is about four and a half feet high, and 
about five and a half feet in 
length. The head and ears 
are horse-like, and the long, 
flowing tail is white. It 
lives in herds, and is found 
most frequentty in company 
with the ostrich and the 
gnu. It is peaceful in its 
habits, but when hunted is 
quite fearless in its charg¬ 
ing. It has been domesti¬ 
cated, but for the most part 
is hunted for sport or killed 
for its flesh. Its habitat is 
southern Africa, and most 
African travellers speak of having enjoyed the sport of shooting the quagga. 

The Daw [Equus montanus ) differs from the quagga in continuing his 
striping the full extent of his body. It is strong and muscular, and has been 
domesticated. Its habitat is the Cape of Good Hope. Like the quagga, it cul¬ 
tivates the society of the ostrich. Its legs and belly are unstriped. Both the 
quagga and the daw are common in zoological gardens and in menageries, and 
are erroneously called zebras. 

The Zebra, or Wild Paard [Equus zebra, Asinus zebra), has white as 
a ground color, but this is marked throughout, except on the belly, with cross¬ 
bands of dark brown or pure black. Mane and neck are short, ears long, the 
form somewhat like that of the wild ass, but the stature greater. It is a moun¬ 
taineer, very wild, very swift, very shy. It is savage in temperament, and dif¬ 
ficult to deal with, even if captured. With one or two possible exceptions, 
trainers have met with no encouragement from the zebra. Zebras and quaggas 
will wander, wailing about the spot where one of their companions has been 
killed. Stanley tells of more than one experience in ^r^-shooting, when the 
herd would stand by their wounded companions until two or three of their 
36 



VI.ACKE VARK. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



and its ferocity lends excitement to the hunt. Its color is a brownish yellow, 
relieved by the whiteness of its beard. Its crested mane has suggested its 
Latin name. 

The Javanese species are called the Warty Boar ( Sus verrucosus ) and the 
Crowned Wild Boar ( Sus vittatus). Celebes has its own variety, Sus celeben- 
sis , Borneo the Bearded Boar (Sus barbatus ), Japan the White-mustached 
Boar (Sus leucomystax) , and China the Chinese Wild Boar (Sus indicus ). 


WILD BOAR BESET BY DOGS. 


number were killed. The zebra will always charge the hunter, and more than 
one narrow escape has been due to a lucky shot while the enraged creature 
was making a courageous effort to punish his wanton assailant. 

UNGULATES.—SWINE. 

The Hindostan Wild Boar (Sus cristatus) is the animal which figures 
in the numerous accounts of “ pig-sticking in India.” It belongs to the jungle, 






THE LIVING WORLD. 


563 

The Japanese Masked Pig (Sus pliciceps ) is a large animal which, when 
domesticated, secretes an enormous amount of fat, and whose face is so furrowed 
as to suggest the masks which Mardi-gras brings into fashion. 

The New Guinea Pigmy ( Porcula papuensis ) is the only ungulate repre¬ 
sented in the fauna of that country. 

The Indian Pigmy ( Porcula salvanici) is about a foot and three-quarters 
in length, although it will weigh from seven to twelve pounds. It is timid 
and* gregarious, and the wandering droves are hunted for the extremely delicate 
flesh of the animal. 

The ancient boar-hunt had all the elements which could excite the imagina¬ 
tion or minister to the love of active adventure. The sport was royal and 
knightly, and this insured a magnificent cavalcade. of mighty hunters, with all 
the pageantry of regal extravagance. The object sought was primarily the 
exhibition of superior courage and prowess, and this lent seriousness to the 
amusement. The animal itself was at once a wary and a dangerous foe, and was 
certain to yield no easy 
victory. Into the depths 
of the forest would plunge 
the sportsmen, while the 
attendants in a circle beat 
the bush. Presently the 
cheerful sounds of baying 
hounds indicated the dis¬ 
covery of a boar, and then 
the sport began. Dogs 
were torn to pieces or sent 
howling to the rear; attend¬ 
ants had much to do to 
keep themselves from be¬ 
coming the pursued instead 
of the pursuers ; and even 
the hunter was liable to 
have the boar suddenly 
swerve iii his direction, and with a single cut of his tusks rip open the horse 
'or maim the hunter. 

A wild boar was brought to bay and speared, when it charged and received 
a second spear between the shoulders, and it was charging yet again, when it 
was killed by the hunter, thus fighting literally to the death. 

The African Bush Hog, or Bosch Vark (. Potamochoerus africanus ), is yet 
more hog-like in appearance as well as more ferocious looking, more formidable, 
and more savage. It is a forester, and, like Robin Hood’s men, is apt to rush 
unexpectedly upon the passer-by. Its coloring is either brown, brown and 
white, or brown and chestnut. Its ox-like head has the cheeks ornamented by 
protuberances, the eyes encircled by white bristles, and the ears tipped with 
white, standing more or less erect. Down its back runs a clipped white mane, 
and it carries its tail, adorned similarly, like a charging buffalo, to which the 
animal has, in general appearance, some resemblance. His spoor or tracks 
resemble a capital M, so that those in pursuit of him have no difficulty in dis¬ 
tinguishing his trail from that of other animals. The natives catch them in 



caeydonian boar hunt (ancient print). 






THE LIVING WORLD. 




pits amplv supplied with pointed stakes, and take the keenest delight in taking 

r* . i • * _ 1 4-/-v ttqc' o cii ■fTpfPn r I^ nPV 


vengeance for "the injury which they themselves have suffered. They wear 


same idea that 


BABYROUSA. 


strings of the tusks about their necks, apparently with the 
induces the North American Indian to collect scalps. The bush hog is about 

two and a half feet in height, and 
five in length. His skin is cov¬ 
ered with long, harsh bristles, and 
altogether he is an unpleasant 
neighbor. 

The Babyrousa of Malacca 

(Porcus babyrusa ) carries four tusks r 
which protrude above the snout 
the pair set in the lower jaw pro¬ 
ject upward on the sides of the 
other pair, the upper pair likewise 
curve upward, passing through the 
upper lip and turning backward 
towards the eyes. The function, 
performed by the upper tusks has 
not as yet been discovered, some 
naturalists merely supposing that 
they may be intended to protect the eyes ; as the sow likewise has eyes but is 
without these tusks, the explanation does not seem at all satisfactory. The great 
strength and relentless ferocity of the babyrousa have made it an esteemed 
object of the chase, but likewise a terrible antagonist. It frequently attains 
the size of a yearling 
calf, and is as much at 
home in the water as 
on land. It prefers 
marshy ground, where 
it lives in large-sized 
herds. 

The Vlacke Vark 

(Phacochoerus afri- 
canus) is even more 
fearfully and wonder¬ 
fully made than the 
babyrousa and the 
bush hog. Its body 
of dark brown is gray 
upon the abdomen, and 
black upon the head, 
neck and upper part of 

the back. The tusks WIU) BOARS DEVOUKING A DEEE . 

are about three-quarters 

of a foot in length and can disembowel a horse. It is not at all backwards 
about acting on the offensive, but if in flight, it keeps taking observations by 
raising its. head and trying to see over its own back. It is so clever as to destroy 
the prevailing belief that the hog is naturally and hopelessly stupid. An 






THE LIVING WORLD. 


565 

African traveller tells of how a vlacke vark outwitted the hunter. The pursuit 
Lad been continued for some ten miles before the boar was brought to bay, 
when the hunter turned it and drove it in the direction of his camp. To his 
surprise the boar showed no unwillingness, so the hunter rode on a little way 
in advance, and was surprised to find the boar following him, as if it were a 
domesticated dog. This continued for several miles, until they reached a region 
full of ant-hills, when the boar suddenly charged backward into one of these, 
and not only passed from sight, but found some means of escape. 

The Ethiopian Wild Boar ( Phacochcerus celiani) is another variety of the 
same species. 

The Peccary, or South American Wild Boar ( Dicotyles torquatus ), is 
smaller than its trans-Atlantic relatives, has fewer teeth, and only a rudimentary 
tail. It roams about as one of a vast herd, and is quite willing and able to take 
•care of itself. Hunting the peccary is full of dangerous adventure, and there¬ 
fore very inviting to mankind, who find great pleasure in trying their animal 
strength and cleverness against those 
<of the brute creation. It has hap¬ 
pened more than once, however, that 
the hunter and hunted have changed 
places, for the peccary does not hesi¬ 
tate about “ carrying the war into 
Africa.” One unfortunate sportsman, 
who was not gunning for boar, was 
forced to climb a tree, and there 
remain for hours, while a herd of 
peccaries held the fort at the bottom. 

Having been born lucky, accidental 
relief came to him, but not until he 
Lad become thoroughly cramped, worn- 
out and famished, so that it was some 
time before he could take much plea¬ 
sure in the recollection or care to dwell upon the story. The peccary makes 
up in fearlessness what it lacks in size, and is dreaded by even the fiercest beasts 
of prey. Its home is the hollow of some great tree, into which the whole 
family back themselves one at a time. The outermost peccary has to do sentinel 
duty, and should anything happen to him the others successively assume the 
duties of a guard. Having learned this habit of the peccary , the hunter spears 
or stabs the sentinel, and thus is able to safely massacre a whole family, whose 
members will appear one at a time. 

The White-lipped Peccary (. Dicotyles labiatus ) is larger, stouter and more 
handy-legged. It is grizzly-black in color, which changes to white on the 
under parts of the nose and mouth. It is gregarious, and the droves number 
thousands. It is migratory, and its destruction of crops is equal to that of 
the locust, while the animal’s ferocity makes submission on the part of the 
farmer almost inevitable, and its ravages are certainly an offset to the fecundity 
of vegetable life in South America. The peccaries would sometimes make short 
work of the hunter were it not for his agility and the saving presence of a 
tree. After the hunter is ensconced in a tree, the peccaries will stand guard, 
and in this duty they exhibit a patience which has caused more than one 



PECCARY. 



566 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



hunter to wish that, for the time being at least, he was frugivorous, and that 
he might find protection against the irritation of unslaked thirst. 

The Peccary, or Tajacu, is quite as terrible as the wild boar, and being 
alike irritable and fierce, it does not await attack, but acts on the offensive. 
One spoken off by Webber, in his “ Romance of Natural History,” was three 
feet long and weighed between fifty and sixty pounds. The tusks of the peccary , 
although not protruding, are lancet-like in their keenness. The animal is victor 
in contests with all the animal kingdom. It takes its rest in deserted burrows 
or in the hollows of trees, and the whole herd backs in one at a time, the last 
one in standing guard, like the former species. 

The Taynicate Peccary is better known, and is larger, fiercer and more 
troublesome than the former species. It is gregarious, and the herds are of very 


HUNTER ATTACKED BY PECCARIES. 

great size. It is a good swimmer, and in coloring is a black-brown; the upper 
jaw is crossed by a white band, which expands so as to cover the lower jaw ; its 
provision in the matter of mane is but slender. The color of the adult animal 
is a very dark-brown flecked with gray, but the young are handsomely striped 
with white. It is among the most mischievous of animals, makes long marches 
in quest of food and so ravages the fields through which it passes as to com¬ 
pletely annihilate the growing crops of maize. When even the least alarmed, 
the peccary stops short and gnashes its teeth, somewhat after the manner of an 
infuriated boar; nor can it be easily put to flight, especially if its numbers be 
strong. During its marches it swims the broadest streams, unless beset by the 
Indians, who seize such opportunities to kill large numbers. 

















THE LIVING WORLD. 



The Hippopotamus (. Hippopotamus amphibius) is ugly enough to seem 
terrible, although it appears to be almost entirely an eater of herbs, and-more 
frequently injures man by destroying his crops than by inflicting any personal 
damage. To the African the hippopotamus is valuable mainly for its ivory, 
although the flesh is regarded as esculent. An allowance of several pounds of 
ivory for each tusk specially excites the cupidity of man and leads him to 
practise dentistry upon a large scale. Africa has become the land for adven¬ 
ture, and the experiences of Livingstone, Baker, Stanley and many another bold 
explorer are the entertainment of those who widen their horizon by adding to 
their purely individual surroundings all that others have found in distant coun¬ 
tries. African exploration has special charms because the motive has a more 
permanent value than any that can attach to the simple hunting of tigers in 
India. Geographical science is the cause in which so many courageous and 
capable men have enlisted, and to this are subordinated the contests with wild 
peoples and fierce beasts—for the progress of science, and not simply as a grati- 
fication of a 
taste for ad¬ 
venture, have 
these men un¬ 
dergone every 
trial, privation 
and danger, 
and thus their 
adventures are 
not simply 
strange and 
thrilling, but 
they are en¬ 
nobled by the 
motive which 
prompts them, 
and the ends 
in humanity’s 
progress which 
they afe yet hippopotamus. 

to serve. 

The hippopotamus is wholly African and is frugivorous. It is easily irri¬ 
tated and then becomes dangerous, as it never hesitates to begin an attack. Its 
only vulnerable spots are the eye and behind the ear, the tough hide serv¬ 
ing as a protection against the bites of insects, and the attack of any enemies. 
When wounded they will attack and upset canoes, so that ‘the natives prefer 
to use none but the smallest, lightest and most speedy dug-outs. The flesh 
tastes like pork and adds to the incitement caused by the ivory of the tusks. 
Generally sociable and peaceful among themselves, they sometimes indulge in 
the most bloodthirsty battles, and most hippopotamuses that have been killed 
or captured bear marks of having at some time suffered from the anger of 
their kind. 

A hippopotamus which had been harpooned, charged out of the water on to 
the land six several times and was driven back by the sand thrown into its eyes, 






THE LIVING WORLD. 


568 

rather than by the countless spears lodged in its yawning throat. The fight 
between hippopotamus and hunters continued fast and furious for three hours, 
when Sir Samuel Baker terminated the contest by a lucky shot. 

An Arab who, in protecting his melon patch tried to drive away a hippo¬ 
potamus , was himself first put to flight and then killed by the bold burglar. 
Harpooning the hippopotamus is a popular method employed by the natives to 
destroy this huge creature, as will be soon explained, but other means equally 
effective are resorted to, among which I may mention the use of what is known 
as the hippopotamus dead-fall, made by attaching a large iron spear, heavily 
weighted and suspended above the path frequented by the . animal in his 
excursions to and from the water. A line is fixed across this path so that 



ATTACKED BY HIPPOPOTAMUSES. 


when the hippopotamus strikes it the spear above is loosed and it falls upon 
the animal with fatal effect. The hippopotamus' 1 s irritation at novelties, increased 
at times by personal wounds, leads it to charge upon boats, and sometimes 
to wreck these. Sir Samuel Baker tells of a most remarkable contest of this 
kind where the animal, although repeatedly driven off with fresh bullet-wounds, 
returned again and again—even going so far as to retire for some hours and 
then renew the attack. Finally his career was stopped by a bullet, and the 
boatmen felt a very decided relief. 

Stanley in his “ Through the Dark Continent” tells of two hippopotamuses 
taking part in a battle between himself and the natives. While the fight was 
going on, these two creatures deliberately swam out and commenced belligerent 
























THE LIVING WORLD. 


569 



operations against his boats, actuated, doubtless, by a mistaken sense of patriotism. 
The huge creature has many times been known to rise suddenly under a 
canoe and, seizing it in his ponderous jaws, crush it as if the effort was no 
greater than the breaking of an egg-shell. The natives frequently harpoon 
the hippopotamus. They will fasten in him a harpoon attached to a rope 
which has a large floater, or bob, at the other end. 

When struck the animal goes plunging off, but 
in spite of his extraordinary ability for remaining 
under water, the bob betrays his whereabouts. They 
next fix three ropes so that two of them will make 
an acute angle, and when thrown over the bob 
they can not slip. These two ropes are now twisted 
into one, while the third is held by natives on the 
opposite side of the stream. The hippopotamus is 
now harnessed, and is gradually pulled towards 
the bank of the double ropers, until finally, in 
spite of frequent vicious charges, restrained by the 
rope on the other bank, he is landed helpless on 
the shore, and is then speedily dispatched. 

The color of the hippopotamus is a dark, fleshy- 
red, marked irregularly by black spots. The young 
are very fond of riding about on the back of the 
mother, who bestows upon it the most zealous care, 
at which time she is so solicitous of its safety that 
she will viciously attack anything which she may 
come suddenly upon, even if it be simply a log 
which meets her sight unexpectedly. 


UNGULATES.—CAMELS. 

In the eastern steppes are found large troops 
of the patient-eyed Camel—the ship of the desert. 

In our thoughts of the camel as a means of transit 
we are apt to overlook the other services which it 
is called upon to render. It supplies food which, 
even though inferior to what Shakespeare calls 
“beeves or muttons,” is palatable and nutritious; 
its milk is as excellent and as pleasant to the taste 
ns that of the cow. Its hairy covering is woven into 
fabrics, from which tents, clothing and coverings 
are made; or it is twisted into cords which fur¬ 
nish harness and other necessary conveniences; its 
skin supplies an excellent quality of leather; its 
refuse is used for fuel; and all these sources of 

profit are to be added to that patient and long- HIPPOPOTAMUS TRAP, 

continued endurance, without which even the exist¬ 
ence of the traveller through the deserts would become impossible. And an 
omniscient Providence has given the camel an anatomical and physiological 
structure which not only adapts it to its environment but which enables it to 
so serve the needs of the higher creature—man. The camel is .no longer 



570 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


unknown to most of us, for the travelling menageries, together with the zoologi 
cal gardens, have, brought it to the acquaintance of most of my readers. Con¬ 
sider the camel's feet, and remember that there is in them the beauty of fitness as 
well as of color and harmonious form. Its foot is divided into two sections and 
supplied with two toes furnished with a short nail; the foot is elongated, of 
great strength, and has a stout, horny sole. This structure would be anything 
but beautiful for the human being; it is, viewed in the abstract, less pleasing 
than the foot of the deer, or of many a bird; and yet when tried by the stand¬ 
ard of mechanical beauty—the test which the engineer applies when speaking 
of his locomotive or his engine ; the test that the mechanic must use in speak¬ 
ing of the processes of his calling; the test used by the mathematician wheu 
speaking of a solution—tried by its proper test, what can be more beautiful ? 
The earners pathway is to be over sands which shift and slide away at each 
movement. If it would move with the security of man upon land, or of the 
marine beings in the sea, it must be able to fasten a sharp toe in the sand 
while the flatness of the foot makes even the shifting base a fresh support, and 



HUNTING THE HIPPOPOTAMUS. 


its horny covering prevents the sand from sifting through. Were we called upon, 
to re-create the world, as many an irritated person longs to do, should we be 
able to devise so wonderful a mechanism, so entirely suited to the office which 
it is to fill? But what end is served by the hump or humps? Is not this 
a malformation, unsightly to the eye and useless for any necessary service ? 
It is the store-house whence the camel draws provisions when they cannot 
be obtained from the dreary waste over which it is passing. It is composed of 
cells which secrete and retain fat against the day of need. Sti]^ again let us 
regard the camePs third peculiarity. Its stomach has not merely the compart¬ 
ments which belong to all the ruminants, or browsing animals, but it is sup¬ 
plied, on either side, with a mass of cells which serve as tanks or reservoirs, 
and in which is stored water so pure as to be drinkable, and so necessary that 
the camel can exercise the most extraordinary abstemiousness when circum¬ 
stances require this, and can in case of desperate need more than moisten the 






THE LIVING WORLD. 


57i 


parched lips of its owner and thus preserve his reason, if not his very life. But 
furthermore, the peculiarities of its structure enable the camel to contend, to the 
best advantage, against fierce winds and clouds of sand, while endowing it 
with the utmost vigor and the greatest swiftness of pace. It is said by the 
mathematician that there is a ratio beyond which mere accident cannot pass; 
that while the realism of DeFoe is such as to lend verisimilitude to the experi¬ 
ences of Robinson Crusoe, yet, though each separate experience may have been 
possible—nay, probable, if you will—the occurrence of such continuous and 
useful coincidences was simply impossible. Therefore must we not conclude that 
when we find in the camel so many and such manifest adaptations to the life 
which it must lead, that instead of blind accident, the only reasonable cause must 
have been the wisdom of the Almighty, even though it be believed by many 
that he chose to work by means of “ natural selection ” and “ evolution ” instead 



CAPTURING A MONSTER HIPPOPOTAMUS. 


of by a special and instantaneous exercise of his omnipotence? It is not 
miraculous that an All-Wise and All-Powerful Being should achieve a success 
not even conceivable by a merely finite mind ; but it would indeed be more 
miraculous than a miracle—more mysterious than a mystery—if a blind force, 
acting without purpose and without direction, should accomplish, not a single 
effect, but a continuous and harmonious arrangement and adaptation of organs. 
The carnePs strength enables it to carry, without fatigue, a burden of from six 
hundred to a thousand pounds; its swiftness and power of endurance enable it 
to pass over, in a single day, from thirty to ninety miles; and both this 
carrying-power and this ability to conquer time and distance are absolutely 
essential alike to the camel , when in its wild state, and to the human inhabi- 







THE LIVING WORLD. 


572 



tants of regions where the habitable portions are separated by great seas of 
sand—a waste more barren than the pathless ocean. 

The camel of the steppes is the Two-humped Camel, or the Bactnan 
Camel (Camelus bactrianus). The bactrian camel is generally about seven feet 
in height; his hair is of a chestnut color, and is short on the body, long upon 
the neck and fore legs, and woolly on the upper part of the neck, upon the 
head, and upon the humps. Pause to think of the different adaptation of wool, 
of short hair, and of long locks, and you will see that the camel is most 
suitably clothed to withstand the most violent changes of temperature. The 
gait of the camel is not that of an ambling palfrey, but when one has learned 
how to ride the animal, he finds the motion no more troublesome than is the 

deck of a ship at 
sea to an old tar. 
As the sailor finds 
it awkward to walk 
upon land, and well- 
nigh impossible to 
ride on horseback, 
so those whose ex¬ 
perience has been 
confined to the camel 
would find them¬ 
selves like a fish 
out of water, if they 
essayed other beasts 
of burden; and as 
the sailor content¬ 
edly walks the deck, 
in spite of the heav- 
ings of the sea, so 
does the camel-driver 
find himself in 
entire harmony with 
the movements of 
his beast of burden. 
The camel, although 
much-enduring, is 
not patient under 

Ill-treatment—to hardship he seems to be indifferent. Doubtless we all remember 
the story of the elephant that revenged himself upon the tailor who pricked him 
with a needle. Similar stories are told of the camel. For example, it is well- 
authenticated that a dragoman, or camel-driver, having abused his camel, found 
it growing more and more intractable, until it suddenly availed itself of an 
opportunity, and spit into the driver’s face the whole of its last meal, reduced 
to pulp and mixed with water and saliva. The dragoman accepted his punish¬ 
ment and amity at once prevailed between himseli and camel. 

The One-humped Camel, or Dromedary (Camelus arabicus ), shares with 
the bactrian camel the burdens of life in the desert. Such dromedaries as are not 
condemned to the life of a mere beast of burden, are most carefully trained for 


THE HIPPOPOTAMUS AND 


























THE LIVING WORLD. 


573 



the easy and speedy carriage of their riders, and are related to their less fortunate 
congeners as the thoroughbred race-horse to the merest scrub. Their gait 
however, requires the rider to be no mere novice, if we are to accept the reports 
of travellers who have experimented with this form of riding. Its length is 
from ten to eleven feet, and its height 'from seven to eight. Its single hump 
serves it for a storehouse in which it accumulates strength against the days 
when forage is scarce. It will eat anything green, so that its owners are 
compelled to protect it against eating the plant known as “camel poison.” 
When not on the march 
it drinks once each day, 
but if striding across the 
desert it is watered but 
once in six days. While 
carrying from five hun¬ 
dred to six hundred 
pounds of freight, it will 
travel regularly twenty- 
five miles a day. The 
thoroughbreds, or riding 
dromedaries are called 
hygeens , and will travel 
from fifty to one hundred 
and fifty miles a day. 

The baggage-carrying 
dromedary is an inferior 
creature and can be pur¬ 
chased at an average 
price of fifteen dollars. 

The Auchenia, ex¬ 
cept for their large heads, 
long necks and great ears, 
would look very much 
like sheep. Their coat 
is most abundant and 
valuable. 

The Guanaco {Au¬ 
chenia huanaco ) is from 
seven to eight feet in 
length, and four feet in 
height, and makes its 
home on the s o ut hern dromedary and bactrian camel. 

Andes. It is gregarious 

and the herds vary from six to thirty, but never allow the presence of more than 
one male. Its fleece is a dirty brown. It always carries its tail erect, andi 
defends itself by spitting at its foe; it is a fair swimmer and a swift runner. 

The Llama {Auchenia llama) is used in Bolivia and Peru a& a beast of 
burden, and will carry from one hundred to two hundred pounds travelling- 
from six to twelve miles a day, up and down the mountain; for beasts of bur¬ 
den only the males are used. 





574 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



The Vicugna, or Vicuna (. Auchenia vicugna), is a member of the family 
whose size is intermediate between that of the alpaca and the llama. The 
vicugna is more shapely, and for coloring is marked with reddish-yellow above, 
white for the lower portion of the body and for the breast, except on the 
underpart of the neck and the inside of the legs where ochre prevails. The 
animal is polygamous and moves about in small herds which all belong to the 
family of the male. The head of the family is expected to keep watch over 
the safety of his flock, and to advise them of the approach of danger. The 
vicugna has one quality in common with the turkey : after having been cor- 
raled, and when confined by no barrier which it could not leap, it will make no 

effort to jump, 
being seemingly 
dazed by flutter¬ 
ing rags tied to 
the encircling 
boundary of 
rope. The In¬ 
dians hunt the 
vicugna with a 
sort of com¬ 
bination of 
hand-ball and 
of lasso. It con¬ 
sists of three 
stones fastened 
to strings, 
which, in turn, 
are fastened to 
each other. The 
hunter who is 
skilful, holds on 
to one string 
and its shot or 
stone, and 
throws the 
others so as to 
tangle up the. 

THE EEAMA {Auchenia llama ) legs of the Vi¬ 

cugna, whose 

hide and flesh are both valued. The vicugna, as well as the llama and the 
guanaco, was frequent in ecclesiastical legends of the Peruvian church, and any 
one not acquainted with Prescott’s “ Conquest of Peru,” will take pleasure in 
reading what the American historian has to say about the animal. 

Among its other enemies, the condor is most dreaded, as the great bird 
pursues the vicugna, and, seizing upon the head, plucks out its eyes, and the 
blinded animal soon after dashes itself to death among the mountain fastnesses 
where it is confined. 

The Paco, or Alpaca (. Auchenia pacos) is the most sheep-like of the Auche- 
nias, and is kept in large flocks on the elevated plains of the Andes, tended by 










THE LIVING WORLD. 


575 



Peruvian slaves. The wool of the paco was introduced into England by Sir Titus 
Salt, who, at Saltaire, built factories of immense size, and inaugurated a new and 
immense industry. The wool, as used in Peru, furnished such marvellously fine 
products as to vindicate the 
enterprise of Sir Titus 
Salt. The famous merino 
sheep yield no such quality 
of material, and those who 
like the best of clothing 
may well recognize the ser¬ 
viceableness of the paco. 

When shorn, the fact that 
the paco belongs to the 
same family as the camel 
becomes instantly and 
almost comically evident to 
any one. The paco is to 
be found in zoological gar¬ 
dens, but visitors may well 
be cautious of too near ap¬ 
proach, as it is given to 
the very filthy habit of ex¬ 
pectorating its food upon 
any one who may excite 
its enmity, which a near 
approach is likely to do. 

It is kept in flocks, is 
sheep-like in appearance, 
and its wool, (w h ich i t 
never sheds) is in great 
demand for the m a n u - 
facture of a superior quality 
of blankets. The fleece is 
taken every year, and the 
hair grows to the length 
of some eight inches. The 
fossil forms of the suidae 
and camels are the pcebro- 
therium , which has the 
typical teeth of the auche- 

nia; the protolabis and condors attacking vicugnas. 

procamelus , which lack the 
incisor teeth of the camel 
molars, having three only. 


and the pliauchenia which varies in point of pre- 


UNGULATES.—DEER. 


The Kanchil ( Tragulus kanchil ) is Malayan in its habitat, and belongs 
to the smallest sized family of ruminating animals. Its delicate head is pointed, 
the body arch-like, legs slender, and hoofs small. Its motion is that of a 
bounding ball rather than walking, running, or leaping. It sleeps resting 













THE LIVING WORLD. 


576 



on its bended knees. It is found also in Java, where the species is named by 
naturalists, tragulus javanicus. It is somewhat less than a foot and a half in 
length, and the prevailing color of } ,r ellow is varied by gray on the throat and 
brown on the tail, except the under part and the tip, which are white. Three 
white collars surround its neck, its sides are tinged with red, and the color of 

its upper parts 
is shaded with, 
black. 

The Su¬ 
matran K a n - 
chil (Tragulus 
napu ) is larger 
and more ex¬ 
travagant in the 
matter of neck¬ 
ties, wearing 
five of them. 

The Cey¬ 
lon Kan chil 
(Tragulus me- 
minna ) is inter¬ 
mediate in size, 
but is banded 
and spotted 
throughout. 
The animal is 
solitary in its 
mode of life. 
The k an chi l, 
first named 
tragulus kan- 
chil , is supreme 
in smallness of 
size, as well as 
superior in 
quickness of 
action and in 
intelligence. It 
is said when 
pursued by 

WOI.VES ATTACKING A CARIBOU. ltS endUieS tO 

jump up and 

fasten itself to the branch of a tree, where it will remain feigning death. 

The Water Deer (Hycemoschus aquaticus) is the mammoth of this family. 
It is found in Sierra Leone, and wears a brown coat, relieved on the throat by 
five up and down stripes and on the flanks by bands and spots of white. 

The Muntjac ( Cervulus muntjac ) has its habitat in India and the neighbor¬ 
ing islands. 

The Weeping Muntjac ( Cervulus lachrymans) belongs to northern China. 









THE LIVING WORLD. s77 

The muntjacs are only a little more than two feet in height, and their short 
legs and their bodies are covered with smooth, reddish-yellow hair, white, how¬ 
ever, being the color of the throat and belly, and brown that of the face and legs. 
A species is found in Borneo, which is darker in coloring and smaller in stature 
It is called the Borneo Sambur (Cervus equinus). There is a species in Java 
(C ervus hippelaphus) , and the Indian species ( Cervus rucervus ) is notable for the 
projection of its antlers at right angles. 

The Caspian Deer ( Cervus caspicus ) is a spotted mountaineer, which changes 
to a sober brown in the winter. 

. The Unarmed Deer (. Hydropates inermis) has no antlers. It belongs to 
China, is a water deer, and lives amidst the rushes. 

The Russian Roe ( Capreolus pvgargus) has six-tined horns, is in habits 
and appearances much like the roebuck, and is not gregarious. 



A FIGHT TO THE DEATH. 


The Brazilian Marsh Deer ( Cervus paludosus) and the Pampas Deer 
(Cervus campestrii) are frequently mentioned in books of South American 
travel. 

The Red-coated Coassus ( Coassus rufus) is only about two and a quarter 
feet in height, and it is spiked rather than antlered. Its habitat is South 
America. 

The Asiatic Sambur, or Rusine Deer ( Cervus aristotelis) , has horns set 
upon a footstalk, projecting, and forked only at the end. It is large and power- 
37 



















57' 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




ful, sooty-colored except on the root of the tail and over the eyes, where it 
becomes tan-colored. It is very fond of the water and lives in low lands. 
It is vicious and morose. The buck is ornamented with a mane. 

The Axis, Spotted 
Hog Deer, or Chittra 
of India (Cervus axis) 
belongs to the sambur 
family. It is golden 
brown in color and has 
a dark brown back 
stripe lightened up with 
a double oblique line 
of white spots. It is 
nocturnal, but other¬ 
wise has the habits 
of the fallow deer. 

The Roebuck 
(Capreolus caprcea ) is 
little over two feet in 
height, but is very 
quick in its movements, 
and very powerful. It 
lives in pairs. It is 
brown, or brown shot 
with gray or red, ex¬ 
cept for the root of the 
tail, the belly, and on 
the inside of the legs, 
which vary from gray 
and two behind. Its 


CANADIAN DYNX AND MOOSE. 


to pure white. Its horns have 
habitat is Europe. Its looks 
are deceptive, for it has an 
ugly temper, and is exceed¬ 
ingly dangerous when irri¬ 
tated. 

The Stag, or Red Deer 
(Cervus elaphas ), is still to 
be found in Scotland, although 
generations of hunting have 
almost exterminated the spe¬ 
cies. Its praises have been 
rehearsed by poet and novel¬ 
ist, and its portrait painted 
by the artist. It is an ex¬ 
pert swimmer and a very 
fleet runner. It can be 
domesticated, but its temper 
is so uncertain as to keep one constantly 
of its front feet. It is gray in winter, but 


one antler in front 


HUNTING THE MOOSE BY NIGHT. 

in danger from the knife-like hoofs 
changes with the season until it 







THE LIVING WORLD. 


579 




attains a brownish-red. The males are solitary beings, and their contests are 
most exciting, equalling in fero¬ 
city that of the most desperate 
bulls. These fights rarely occur 
except during the mating season, 
when the sight of one buck by 
another is a sufficient challenge, 
and they immediately rush to 
the encounter. 

The Wapiti, Carolina Stag, 
or American Elk (Cervus cana¬ 
densis ), lives in large or small 
herds, commanded by an old 
buck, whose orders are never 
disputed. This leadership, 
however, is neither gained nor 
retained without many a battle 
with rivals. Occasional instances 
have been known where two stags, 
getting their horns inextricably 
interlocked, have perished of 
hunger and left the vacant throne 
to a successor. It is a hard task¬ 
master to the does and keeps them 
in constant and not unnecessary 
fear, evidently believing in the 
British doctrine that a man may 
punish his wife. When wounded MOOSB < Cem “ alces) ' 

the wapiti at once becomes aggressive and is a dangerous antagonist. It 

is a swift runner and an ex¬ 
pert swimmer, frequently 
submerging itself to the 
point of the nose, with 
the seeming object of 
escaping the heat and in¬ 
sects. It is valued for its 
flesh, its skin and its 
sport-giving qualities. It 
can be domesticated, but 
submits to no punishment. 
It is said that a tame wa¬ 
piti once treed its owner. 
He was annoyed by its 
attentions and struck it 
with his cane, whereupon 
the wapiti at once charged, 
roebuck. and the gentleman, while 

running, happening to fall 

between two logs, was kept captive for several hours, while the wapiti used its 
horns on the outside. 





THE LIVING WORLD. 


58 ° 



In the early settlement of the West, the wapiti was very numerous, and 
afforded both sport and subsistence to the hardy pioneers, but in latter years 
it has become so scarce that it is seen at rare intervals, and only in the almost 
inaccessible regions of the extreme northwest, near the British line. A few 
more years and the species will become extinct, unless a few specimens be pre¬ 
served in zoological gardens, where, however, it does not seem to thrive. 

A hunter tells of an amusing battle which occurred between his compan¬ 
ion and an elk that had been excited by a red handkerchief which he had 
about his neck. It seems that the man was incorrigibly lazy and confined his 
exercise to the inevitable duties of camp-life, and to rendering both day and 

night hideous by his attempts 
at singing. According to 
his own report, while resting 
his back against a tree and 
warbling a ditty for his own 
entertainment, he was sud¬ 
denly approached by an elk. 
He resolved to enter a pro¬ 
test against the chronic 
complaints of his laziness, 
so he seized a gun and 
blazed away at the wapiti , 
which, however, instead of 
at once succumbing to the 
invitation for its conversion 
into venison began a vigo¬ 
rous charge upon the ag¬ 
gressor, and one which, but 
for the opportune return of 
the hunter, might have re¬ 
sulted fatally to the vocalist. 
As it was, the unskilful 
sportsman had his clothing 
converted into fringe, and if 
not dead, still wears marks 
of the stag’s prowess. 

The Fallow Deer ( Cer- 
red deer ( Cervus eiaphus). vus dama) has a spotted coat 

and palmated horns, which 
branch widely. It is so graceful a pet that it is most commonly to be 
found in deer parks. The head of the family keeps by himself, or is sur¬ 
rounded only by very few of the most highly-favored. If away some other 
acts as regent, but he must surrender his authority the instant that his monarch 
appears or he will be ingloriously pushed aside by the horns of the king. His 
authority, once obtained, is unquestioned until failing strength tempts the ambi¬ 
tion of aspiring courtiers. As a rule the fallow deer is reddish, with white 
spottings and two or three white body lines, but sometimes the animal is brown 
or black throughout. The venison is specially good, the skin is manufactured 
into leather, and the horns serve a variety of human needs. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 5 8i 

The Moose (A/ces malchzs, or americanus ,) is still found in considerable 
numbers in Maine. It is about seven feet high, and its large, heavy horns are 
palmated. It is dark brown, with yellow legs, and corresponds to the elk of 
northern Europe. It can go over obstacles and through the brush (at which times 
it lays its head well back on its shoulders), is awkward and clumsy, but fleet and 
enduring, shy, but capable of the most dreadful attacks with its hoofs and its horns. 
Its flesh is held in esteem and its horns and skin serve many useful purposes. 
It will, on the average, weigh some seven, hundred pounds, of which its horns claim 
a twelfth; such a weight brought into sudden contact with a tree of ordinary 
size will at once uproot it, and, as it were, crush it. Its sense of hearing is 



A SAVAGE PURSUIT. 


painfully acute, and its watchfulness correspondingly great. The rustle of a 
leaf, or the snapping of the least twig will be excuse enough to the vioose for 
a full hour’s listening. Were it not for the winter season, with its provision 
of moose-yards and deceptive snow-crust, the moose might safely defy pursuit. 
The snow-yards which it constructs are frequently four or five miles in diameter. 
During the rutting season the Indians imitate the call of the buck, and there 
always seems to be one to answer the challenge. It can remain under water 
almost indefinitely, which fact adds to the difficulties of the chase. During the 
winter, if a moose is found outside of a moose-yard, it is pretty sure to be 
chased and killed by the wolves. 













5§2 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




The moose is hunted in Maine during the winter, when the hunter, on his 
snow-shoes, can move rapidly over the crust which gives way beneath the ungu- 
lated feet of the moose. The moose will, on the average, stand sixteen and a 
half hands (or five feet and a half) high, has an ass-like head, protruding eyes, 

broad ears, long legs and 
immense, palmated antlers. 
The chase is always exciting, 
for the animal goes through 
the densest brush, without 
noise or any apparent diminu¬ 
tion of its speed, and by mere 
momentum will press down 
quite large saplings, brushing 
them away as if they were 
made of floss instead of wood. 
Its senses of sight, scent and 
hearing are extraordinarily 
acute, and create the necessity 
for the greatest caution on 
the part of the hunter. It 
is semi-aquatic during the 
summer mouths, when it 
fallow DEER. has to protect itself not solely, 

against the insect which uses 
the moose's flesh for a nest, but also against the numberless species of flies, 
gnats and mosquitoes which infest its habitat. Its tenacity of life is very 
remarkable, as may be 
illustrated by the fact 
that a moose , which had 
lost the use of one hind 
leg, and had had one 
of its shoulders broken, 
still managed to keep 
the hunters chasing it 
for forty-eight hours 
before it finally eluded 
them. Frequently the 
moose will take to the 
water, and expose only 
its horns and nostrils. 

This renders the shoot¬ 
ing of them, while in 
the water, a matter of 
the nicest skill, and, as 

dead deer do not float, reindeer. 

the enterprise has all the 

elements of interest for the true sportsman. Compared to this, the chase over 
the snow, into which the creature cuts at every step, and, still more, the slaugh¬ 
ter of the moose in the snow-yards which it builds for its protection, is tame. 






THE LIVING WORLD. 


583 



The Virginian Deer, or Carjacou ( Cervus virginianus) , is a good swimmer 
and jumper, a lover of the outskirts of civilization, attached to its feeding- 
grounds, elegant in appearance and quite numerous in America. Its many¬ 
pronged horns bend first backward and then forward, the ends branching out 
just above the nose. It wears three suits a year: a brown one in winter, a 
reddish one in the spring and a blue one in the autumn. The fawns are 
white-spotted. When hunted, it takes to the water, and has even been known 
to swim a mile or so out to sea. Sovereignty is not secure when once obtained, 
for there are constant contests between the bucks. It always jumps into the 
air when unex¬ 
pectedly dis¬ 
turbed; but, 
when aware of 
the presence of 
the hunter, it 
will crouch in 
the grass until it 
believes that it 
sees its oppor¬ 
tunity for escape. 

It can be tamed, 
but its mischiev¬ 
ousness is said 
to render it a verj’’ 
troublesome pet. 

The most com¬ 
mon species is 
the American red 
deer. 

The White¬ 
tailed Deer {Cer¬ 
vus leucurus ) has 
a long tail, nar¬ 
row hoofs, short 
hair, long, slen¬ 
der feet. It is 
found on the up¬ 
per Missouri. 

The Sonora 

Deer {Cervus the moose hunters. 

mexicanus ) dif¬ 
fers from the Virginian or Carjacou deer principally in being smaller. 

The Mule Deer {Cervus macrotis) is larger in size, and distinguished by 
ears of such proportions as to give it its name. It is found on the Yellowstone. 

The Black-tailed Deer {Cervus columbianus) resembles the mule deer, and 
is found in California and Oregon. On its forehead it wears an ornament, 
which resembles a horse-shoe, doubtless carried for luck. 

The smallest known deer, the Dwarf Deer {Padua humilis ) is found m 
Chili, and its antlers, two and a half inches in length, are large, in proportion 
to the size of the animal. 






584 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


The Reindeer {Rangifer tarandus ) is about the size of an English stag, 
but less graceful and symmetrical. The horns are long, slender and round, 
re-curved, branched with palmated summits. Its color is brown above and white 
beneath, although the upper parts grow gray with increasing age. The lower 
part of the neck is drooping, the hoofs large, long and black, and accompanied 
by secondary hoofs on the hind feet. Julius Caesar mentions meeting with the 
reindeer in the Hyrcanian forests, but its present habitat is the Arctic polar 
belt. Its skin makes the warmest of clothing, and its flesh and tongue very 
delicious food. Its fat is used in making “pemmican,” by pouring one-third 
melted fat over two-thirds pounded meat. The oestrus fly is a great and constant 



REINDEER SLEIGH. 


annoyance to the reindeer , because of its preference for the flesh of the 
reindeer as a depository for its eggs. 

The reindeer continues to play too important a part in human life, not at 
once to suggest his appearance to the reader. In winter it is dressed in long, 
grayish-brown fur, which changes to white on the abdomen, neck, hindquarters 
and end of .nose.. The Laplanders own thousands which have been domesti¬ 
cated, and life without the reindeer would be unlivable. It will draw a load 
of from two hundred to three hundred pounds, at the rate of nine miles an 
hour, and can keep this up for twelve hours a day, as a regular exercise. It 
is able to sustain life upon a lichen found under the snow, so that it costs 
nothing for its support. In Kamtchatka the reindeer is used as a saddle- 
horse besides being put to many other useful services. 









THE LIVING WORLD. 


535 


The Caribou, or American Reindeer (. Rangifer caribou ), is a large animal, 
some three and a half feet high, but has never been domesticated. When 
chased in winter, it will seek a body of water, and sitting on its haunches will 
slide itself along the ice. The skin is its most valuable possession, so far as 
man is concerned, although it has a thin layer of fat which, being poured 
over pounded meat, makes “pemmican.” It runs in herds, which vary in size 
from a dozen to three hundred. It is trapped in two ways : First, a slab of 
ice is balanced on a pivot, so as to precipitate into a pit any unwary caribou 
that may step upon it; secondly, a herd is driven into a large inclosure, cut 
up into numerous alleys, each one of which is provided with a noose which 
strangles the deer as it moves about. 

The European Caribou is only a different species, whose description does 
not differ greatly from the above. 

The Barren Ground Caribou (. Rangifer grcenlandicus) is smaller, more 
graceful and larger horned. Its 
habitat is the American Arctic 
region. 

The Musk Deer ( Moschus 
moschiferus) is regarded as a 
primitive or undeveloped species 
of deer. It is about a foot and 
three-quarters in height, (meas¬ 
uring from the top of the 
shoulder), and about three feet 
in length. It has no horns or 
antlers, and its reddish-brown 
hair is sleek and short; its 
coloring becomes white on the 
belly. The male has glands 
on the thighs near the tail and 
on the posterior ventral part 
which secrete the article known 
to commerce as musk. Although 
the nature of the use of these 
glands to the deer is not known, their service to man as a contribution to 
his pharmacopoeia and to his perfumes is unquestionable. A single deer 
will yield about three drams, of musk, and this will sell in first hands for 
as much as a dollar a sac or pod. We have been told about the antiquity of 
the Chinese civilization, and one of our own poets has introduced us to the 
craftiness of the “Heathen Chinee.” Of course, with the luxury and increased 
knowledge of an old civilization comes corruption which must ever be the 
shadow cast by any virtue. Hence, while it may be regretted, it can hardly 
surprise us to know that the Chinese have been so clever and so persistent 
in their adulterations of musk, that a pure article is no longer to be found, 
except in the possession of the deer itself. Possibly the musk deer knows that 
a price has been set upon its head, for it is exceedingly shy, and though 
approaching human habitations, it does this like a thief in the night, solely 
with the intention of stealing sweet potatoes. It is, for the most part, captured 
only by trapping. 





586 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



The Giraffe (Camelopardalis giraffa ) is at home in the regions near the 
sands of Sahara, and when in his native element, is a very symmetrical creature 
in spite of his tremendous stature. His head resembles that of a camel, but he 
has a special hair sand-protector for his nostrils, whose safety is further secured 
by the obliqueness of their setting, and the possession of a muscular cover by 
which th z. giraffe can close them at will. The beautiful, silken skin of th z giraffe, 
and its mild, large, lustrous eyes are certainly objects of beauty. He is an 

accomplished 
kicker, and his 
length and power 
of limb render him 
a very dangerous 
antagonist. A 
large-sized giraffe 
will measure six¬ 
teen or seventeen 
feet from the top 
of its head to its 
fore feet, and the 
larger part of this 
is neck. But 
since he is to 
graze on nothing 
smaller than trees 
and has at the 
same time to pro- 
tect himself 
against enemies 
who will not dis¬ 
dain to take ad¬ 
vantage of any 
philosophical 
wool-gathering, it 
must be conceded 
that he seems to 
be built to order 
for the conditions 
of his life. His 
skin makes an ex¬ 
cellent leather, 
and his flesh is 
group of giraffes. edible. He moves 

about in small 

herds and is safe against carnivorous animals, unless these surprise him. He 
runs slowly on level ground and can easily be overtaken by a horse but he is 
bullet-proof, except in spots. The natives catch him in pits which they dig in 
such fashion that when he falls in he will find his belly on a hill, and his legs 
dangling in the air. below. The giraffe is easily domesticated, and is interest- 
mg from its affectionateness, its active curiosity and its delicacy and fas¬ 
tidiousness in eating. 







587 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


UNGULATES.— BUFFALO AiND OX FAMILY. 



Tf ^ U ff OCh ’ Bon 5 SSU !> °F 1 Zubr {Bison europea ), is Lithuanian in habitat. 

It always diffuses an odor of violet musk. Naturally shy and retiring yet it will 
fight when irritated, and is a terrible adversary. It is a good swimmer and 
escapes domestication by its exceeding moroseness and untamableness It is 
about six feet m height. The species is substantially extinct, as its habitat is 
so narrow m ex¬ 
tent. It is light- 
brown in color, 
has a forehead 
whose breadth is 
lengthwise, is 
bearded, and wears 
small horns which 
curve upward. 

The Ameri¬ 
can Buffalo {Bi¬ 
son americanus) 
has been slaugh¬ 
tered by tourists 
and visiting for¬ 
eigners who owned 
guns, until it is 
about extinct as a 
species. The last 
herd of fourteen 
known in Colorado 
were shot by a 
single party which 
had crossed the 
salt water for the 
sake of having an 
adventure which 
would glorify the 
rest of their lives. 

It has a remarka¬ 
ble power of stor- 
ing up water 
“against a dry 

spell.” A mOng NORTH AMERICAN BUFFALO. 

the many un¬ 
sportsman-like methods of hunting the creature, was that of driving a whole 
herd over the sheerest precipices. When the Union Pacific Railway was built, 
immense herds of buffalo were frequently met with, and travellers, while in the 
cars, would shoot the animals. Not so very many years ago steamboats on the 
Mississippi and Missouri were not infrequently compelled to stop and give the 
right of way to herds of buffalo swimming across the river. 

The Gayal {Bibos frontalis ) is East Indian, and is named from its forehead. 
It is a mountaineer, and its stout, large, pointed horns run (excepting for a slight 





588 


THE LIVING WOULD. 



curve at the tips), at right angles to the head, still further increasing the 
frontal development. 

The Gaur, or Gour [Bibos gaurus ), is the mammoth among oxen. It is 
from six to ten feet in length, has an elevated ridge on its back, varies from deep- 
brown to black, but the legs are white below the knees. It moves about in 
herds of from ten to thirty, in which there are but three or four males. It 
seeks the deepest recesses of the forest, and is held in absolute dread by the 
fiercest of the carnivora. In addition to always keeping sentinels on guard, they 
invariably feed standing in a perfect circle, with their heads in the circumference. 
For some reason it is entirely indifferent to the presence of the elephant, so that 

a mounted hunter has no aiihculty in 
approaching it. Its lowing and its bellow¬ 
ing both resemble the grunting of the hog. 
Its two inches of thick skin cover flesh 
which is specially tender and palatable. It 
lives in the jungles of India. 

The Anoa Buffalo belongs to Cele¬ 
bes, is straight-horned, and although small 
of size is exceedingly fierce. One of them 
which was penned up with fifteen large 
stags, killed them all. 

The Banteng (Bibos banteng) belongs 
to the fauna of Borneo and the vicinity, 
is grayish-brown, and wears tri-curved horns 
which end by curving inward. It is often 
called the Javan ox y is strong, fleet and 
active. The bulls are brown in color, 
while the cows are bay. The lower legs, 
inner ears and hips are white, and the 
hind quarters have white patches. It is 
from five to six feet in height, is frequently 
domesticated, and is ridden, driven and used 
as a beast of burden, rendering all the 
services which ordinarily fall to the lot of 
the horse. 

The Indian Zebu (Bos indicus) is a 
slender-limbed animal, humped on the 
shoulders, dewlapped, and with a back 
which, after sloping upward from the 
shoulders to the haunches, seems suddenly 

THIBETAN YAK AND BIG-HORNED SHEEP. t0 dr °P aWa Y and Vanish. It is not COU- 

fined to India but is found in China and 
has been met with on the coast of East Africa. It is readily domesticated, 
when it displays good temper and intelligence. It is used not merely for 
heavy draught, but likewise in harness, and while not at all speedy is steady 
and reliable, being capable of sustaining a gait of five miles an hour for as 
long as fifteen hours a day. To this species belongs the Sacred Brahma Bull 
for which there is such great reverence that one of them will, without opposition, 
walk through the market place, push people to the right and left, "and help 
himself to any article that strikes his fancy. 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


5 8 9 




The African Sauga (Bibos africanus ) wears a hump on its shoulders, and 
the natives from time to time subject it to vivisection that they may enjoy 
fresh steaks. This treatment may give the animal transient pain, but it seems 
to cause it no permanent inconvenience. 

The Yak, or Grunting Ox (.Poephagns grunniens ), is a native of Thibet, 
where it is a creature of importance whether for domestic service or industrial 
uses. We hear less of Thibet because by conquest it has become a part of the 
Chinese Empire, but it is a land full of strangeness and full of nature’s wonders. 
Its Mongolian inhabitants are 
nomadic in the northern steppes, 
but agricultural, or engaged in 
commerce and the industries 
as they live toward the south 
or in the cities. To offset the 
boiling geysers of other coun¬ 
tries, Thibet has freezing gey¬ 
sers, although not destitute of 
the other kind. One might 
think that the Titans had 
opened great ice-houses, as 
solid and massive columns of 
ice fall in quick succession 
from the height of the geyser; 

or he might think as the sun- THE AFR i CA n sauga. 

light is separated into the 

prismatic colors that he had stumbled upon the abode of the ice-king. The 
arable land is confined to the warm valleys, but there abound everywhere rich 

mines of the precious and 
useful metals, and of gems 
so rich and rare as to render 
possible the experience of 
Sinbad the sailor. Animal 
life abounds and may be 
represented by the yak. 
This animal, which can be 
seen in many a zoological 
garden, would be called a 
buffalo by those unfamiliar 
with it. It is very gre¬ 
garious, so that the im¬ 
mense size of its herds 
again suggests the Ameff- 

THE ind.an yak. can buffalo, before that ani- 

mal was by ruthless 

slaughter rendered as scarce as the descendants of the Indians, who lent ani¬ 
mation to the life of the early colonists. The hair of the head upon the yak 
is curly or frizzly; its mane is long and thick; its body is covered by short 
hair, but the legs and flanks have the greatest abundance of soft long hair; 
its long flowing tail is white. It looks as if some great hairy creature had 



590 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



through some cause grown bald on its back, or as’ if some prairie fire had 
burned away the middle of a hairy spread, or some new fashion in the 
tonsorial art had brought into vogue an inverted pompadour for animals. 
The yak is hunted for its flesh, hair and hide, and the sport has all the 
excitement of danger, for when excited the bulls are very ferocious. When a 
herd is attacked the calves are gathered together while the bulls and cows 
form a solid square around them. But the yak is quite as necessary and 
useful as a domestic animal, and readily adjusts itself to the laborious ser¬ 
vice of man’s daily life. It supplies the family with a plentiful quantity 
and an excellent quality of pure milk; it is strong and enduring as a beast 
of burden; and it is able to forage for its own subsistence and to be satisfied 

with “plain liv¬ 
ing” even though 
it may not indulge 
in “high think¬ 
ing.” There are 
castes among yaks } 
so that while the 
beautiful, white- 
trimmed patrician 
holds his head 
high in air, the 
common or plough 
yak recognizes the 
lack of gorgeous 
apparel and great 
stature, and in 
humility walks 
with head bent 
down. 

There are 
two species of the 
African buffalo, 
the Short-Horn 
Buffalo (Bubalus 
buffelus ), and the 
Buffalo of Caf- 

. , fraria {Bubalus 

S-i * ormer brown in its coloring, the latter black. The Asiatic 

Bunalo {Bos bubalus) is the type most commonly known to all but African 
travelers. .cr celebrated Livingstone describes methods of hunting the 
African buffalo, which are even more wantonly destructive than the unsports- 
man-like. warfare which has rendered almost extinct the American bison. 
The natives are in the habit of digging covered pits, and then beating up 
the country for miles around to drive first into corrals, and then into the 
pits, everything that has life, and which does not succeed in breaking through 
and making its escape. These corrals open into deep pits, in which are planted 
sharpened stakes, upon which the animals impale themselves. The method of 
hunting among the Chinese emperors omits the pitfalls, but is equally secure 


GORED BY A WOUNDED BUFFALO. 








THE LIVING WORLD. 


59i 



and destructive. They have their soldiers drive the game together, and when 
the animals have been sufficiently terrified by noise and wounds, the emperor 
amuses himself by killing such as he is pleased to select, and then the object 
of the pageant has been accomplished. The Cafe buffalo , or buffalo of Caf- 
fraria , is black, as has been said, but a blue-black. Its hide is dense, and its 
feet are. like those of the ox. It will attack anything, and is dangerous 
because it will lie in wait in the jungle and take advantage of the unwary 
traveller or hunter. It is more emotional even than the elephant, and some¬ 
times has absolute paroxysms of rage. It was always an enjoyment for those 
who attended gladiatorial shows to watch the buffalo and the tiger, for the 
buffalo not merely is combative, but has the greatest antipathy to this ani- 


BATTLE BETWEEN A LEOPARD AND A CAPE BUFFALO. 

mal. The buffalo is almost uniformly successful, and after tossing its foe, 
will kneel upon him and crush him, butt him, lick him raw with its 
tongue, and finally feast upon his blood. A native was pitched into the 
branches of a tree by a wounded buffalo, and was glad of the exchange 
from the tossings and tramplings which he had previously undergone. On 
one occasion, as a hunter was about to dispatch a wounded bull, he was 
surprised by its peculiar moan which proved to be a successful appeal to 
its comrades for succor. Tenacity of life is a characteristic of the buffalo, and 
oven when at the distance of a few feet it has been shot full in the head, it 
Las been known to scamper away as if unharmed. 

The buffalo has been known to chase the tiger just for sport. A 
















































592 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



bull having been wounded, its fellows tried to support it on either side, and 
thus enable their injured companion to escape with his friends. On another 
occasion a large bull having been desperately wounded, a younger bull came 
back and devoted itself partly to stimulating the wounded animal to fresh 
efforts, and partly with attempts to divert the attention of the hunter. The 
most interesting feature in this story is that the devoted efforts of the young 
bull were successful, and it was not until many months later that the hunter 
found the carcase of the bull which he had woundeff mortally. The buffalo 
constantly changes the route by which it goes to and from its watering-place. 

An amusing experi¬ 
ence is related by 
one of our. distin¬ 
guished African 
travellers. He had 
wounded a bull, 
which charged so 
savagely that he had 
to put spurs to his 
horse, and while 
riding at full speed 
the horse put his foot 
into a hole, while 
the rider went on as 
if being fired through 
a pneumatic tube. 
Fortunately, an ant¬ 
hill was near at 
hand, and he scram¬ 
bled to the top, while 
the buffalo vainly 
endeavored to imitate 
his example. The 
buffalo next estab¬ 
lished himself as a 
sentry, being careful 
not to expose his 
vulnerable parts. 
At this stage, the 
riderless horse was 
inspired to try co¬ 
operation. Attracting 
tne attention of the buffalo, he would keep it charging after him around the 
hill, until the hunter succeeded, after several trials, in putting an end to the 
triangular contest. When life was extinct in the buffalo, the horse walked up 
to the carcase, sniffed at it contemptuously, and then withdrawing a short dis¬ 
tance, patiently awaited any further call upon its services. If the buffalo 
succeeds in catching the hunter, a mad ox is amiable and inoffensive in compari¬ 
son. Many a native has been carried on the horns of a buffalo, either to his 
death, or to escape grievously wounded, even if relief should come. 


ADVENTURE WITH A CAPE BUFFALO. 







THE LIVING WORLD. 


593 



On one occasion a native, after being carried twenty yards upon the 
“ cowcatcher,” was thrown into the branches of a tree, where he preferred to 
pose as a new species of over-ripe fruit, rather than to proceed to “ that bourne 
from which no traveller returns.” Henry M. Stanley tells of a fearful experi¬ 
ence on the part of one of his native attendants. The native, believing the 
buffalo to have been rendered helpless, drew near with the intention of using, 
his knife, when the mortally wounded animal made a last herculean effort, and 
seizing the native, tossed him hither and thither until the last spark of life 
had fled, and there remained nothing but a mangled corpse. 

The buffalo is either hunted by mounted huntsmen, or else by the method 
of stalking. The shoulder shot is the only one that is effective, and the 
experienced hunter is always slow to approach the animal after it has fallen. 
The bulls engage in the most 
furious contests when seeking the 
favor of the cows, and the victory 
belongs to the one which succeeds 
in pushing the other backward 
until it relinquishes the conflict 
and sullenly retreats. When 
the buffalo strikes a quicksand, 
it at once loses its fierce cour¬ 
age, and will, in a broken- 
spirited way, allow itself to be 
entombed, even when by the 
slightest effort it might escape. 

The average weight of a bull is 
from four hundred to five hun¬ 
dred pounds, so that the wanton 
destruction which has nearly 
rendered the animal extinct, is 
still less pardonable. 

Hunting the reeds for buf¬ 
falo, although “ extra-hazard¬ 
ous,” is always profitable, as 
the hunter never fails to find 
a herd; at one time twenty-nine 

were thus shot. Two bulls, battue between AMERICAN bison and grizzly bear. 
when fighting, do not remove 

their horns, but exert all their strength to push each other backward. They 
strike for the chest, but it is rare that either is unskilful enough not to 
parry the thrust and to get horns locked with horns. A native disturbed a 
cow and a calf, and frightened the latter, whereupon the cow made a successful1 
charge, and after striking him in the back and inserting her horns m the 
man’s belt, swung him round and round until the belt gave way. The cow- 
then returned to her calf, licked it affectionately, and the two slowly walked 
away without paying any further attention to the man. Another less for¬ 
tunate native was gored from back to breast. Another, while engaged m ig t, 
was overtaken by the buffalo, tossed again and again and escaped finally 
through being pitched up into the branches of a tree. Another while with a 

38 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


594 



party engaged in “ pig-sticking,” was severely prodded by an intrusive buffalo. 
A celebrated traveller having gone to batlie was suddenly charged by a buffalo 
and knocked over the bank. Even this did not satisfy the angry brute, for 
clambering down to where the traveller lay between two narrow ledges of 
rocks, it first butted at him ineffectually, and then licked his legs with his 
rasping tongue, finally desisting solely because the traveller had the self-con¬ 
trol to simulate death even while being sand-papered. 

The Hon. W. H. Drummond tells of shooting 1 a solitary buffalo bull in 
the forehead and then hastily climbing a tree. From this point of advantage 

he saw the buffalo charge wildly 
hither and thither, and finally start 
off for parts unknown, irritated but 
unharmed. He followed in its track 
all day long, and finally came upon 
it in the jungle, and having taken 
the risk of entering a great cane- 
brake escaped by a quick single 
shot, which happened to touch the 
buffalo in the right spot. Living¬ 
stone and Baker tell of the great 
skill of the native aggageers, who 
pursue and hamstring with their 
swords elephants, buffaloes and other 
dangerous game. 

The Musk Ox, or Musk 
Sheep (Ovibos moschatus ), can be 
successfully hunted only by stalk¬ 
ing, but the venison-like taste of 
its flesh attracts the hunter. It 
has very acute sight and hearing, 
and is exceedingly nimble as a 
leaper. It runs in herds of from 
ten to twenty, and when pasturing 
always posts sentinels. It is from eleven and 
a half to twelve and a half hands in height, 
and its coat is soft, long and dark brown in 
color. Its eyes express gentleness, but during 
the rutting season it is exceedingly quarrelsome 
and vindictive, and uses its sharp-pointed horns 
with great effect. The mothers are very zeal¬ 
ous in caring for their young, and while com¬ 
pelled to conceal them, keep a very watchful 
eye upon any person or animal approaching the place of their concealment. 


A FIGHT IN THE FOREST. 


UNGULATES.—ANTELOPES. 

The Eland of the Steppes (.Antilope oreas) wanders in company with a 
mate or as one of a large band. It equals the horse in stature, and its huge 
antlers, starting from the head. at a right angle, suddenly curve upward and 
terminate in a broad palm, which finally gives way to ^deep indentations lying 







595 


THE LIVING WORLD. 

between projecting prongs. As would be supposed, the neck, which must sup¬ 
port the weight of these antlers, is short, thick, shaggy and powerful, but if the 
beauty of fitness is thus attained, the beauty of symmetry is lost through the 
undue projection of the shoulders and the extravagant length of the fore legs. 
It is often called the canna , is found in Thibet-, and is as large as an ox, being 
six feet in height and even disproportionately stout. It is so unwieldy that it 
is easy to drive it to the vicinity ' of camp before shooting it. Another species 
is found in South Africa, which differs from the steppe eland in having 
straight horns, heavy brisket, is destitute of mane, but has a thick tuft of 
hair growing from the centre of the forehead. Its flesh is specially pala- 



HUNTING THE MUSK-OX. 


table in a region where most flesh is dry. It seems to live without any 
need for water, but it is the opinion of leading naturalists that the eland 
is able to extract its drinking water from its food, and hence while seem¬ 
ing to be an advocate of total abstinence, still manages to secure its supplies. 
In color it is grayish-brown, and its horns are large and spiral. There is a 
striped variety, but though belonging to the same region and having substan¬ 
tially the same habits, it is rarely met with. A traveller relates quite an illus¬ 
trative experience. Having found a herd of elands he wounded one of them, 
but the herd would not desert their unfortunate companion. After driving the herd 
before him for several miles, he succeeded in separating the wounded one and 

















THE LIVING WORLD. 


596 

in driving it in the direction of his camp. At one time he rode into an ant¬ 
hill and was dismounted, but speedily resumed the pursuit. Again a lion 

scared both hunter and eland, 
and gave a certain obliquity 
to their line of march. Fi¬ 
nally the wounded eland was 
driven near the camp, and as 
a reward for having served 
as a butcher’s delivery-wagon, 
was then shot. The eland is 
rapidly being exterminated, 
for zoology to African natives 
and to African hunters seems 
to mean only the procuring 
of some kind of meat to eat. 
The weight of those killed in 
Central Africa varies from 
eight hundred to fifteen hun¬ 
dred pounds. 

The Boschbok ( Tragela - 
phus sylvaticas) belongs to 
southern Africa, and though 
numerous is rarely seen and 
still more rarely captured. It 
has a white line along the back, 
succeeded by black, relieved 
irregularly by white spottings. It is the most suspicious and keen of hearing 
of all the deer. It is pronounced the finest of African antelopes, and as it 
always charges, is interesting 
to the sportsman. On one 
occasion at least it killed a 
leopard which had attacked it, 
and escaped, wearing the 
leopard’s blood upon its 
horns. 

The Harnessed Ante¬ 
lope (Tragelaphus scriptus) is 
a striped eland. It belongs 
to western and southern Af¬ 
rica. It is distinguished by 
white stripes, arranged like 
harness, is thickly spotted on 
the haunches, and has a few 
spots on the shoulder, which 
impart a curiously pleasing 
appearance, resembling breech¬ 
ing, from which the name is 
derived. The species has 
been seen by few travellers and may be 



AFRICAN EEAND. 


considered as nearly extinct. 



EEAND OF THE STEPPES. 











THE LIVING WORLD. 


597 




STRIPED ANTELOPE. 


The Nakong, or Nzoe ( Tragelaphus spekii ), is an almost aquatic animal, 
found in the interior of Africa. When swimming it exposes itself very 
little. It lies in the rushes by day and pastures by night. The hunter burns 
the rushes, and uses the fire thus kindled to drive the nakong into clear water, 
as well as for enabling him to see the horns which are the only part of the 
animal above the surface of the 
water. The nakong is smaller 
than the leche, and is better 
provided with a paunch than are 
most antelopes. It is grajdsh- 
brown, and its coat is long, 
sparse and coarse-looking, and is 
spotted, not striped. It carries 
small, twisted horns, which are 
provided with double, winding 
ridges. It moves with the 
shambling gallop of a mangy 
cur dog. 

The Nilgau {Portaxpictus ) 
is frequently to be met with in 
zoological gardens. It comes 
from India, and its grayish- 
brown coloring is relieved by 
white patches on the face and legs, 
and by a full black mane and throat whiskers. Its short horns are almost straight. 

The Abyssinian Beisa {Oryx beisa), though sometimes found on the coast, 

prefers the desert. It is parti¬ 
colored, and while generally 
inclining to yellow, as the 
color of its coat, it is white at 
the extremity of the mouth and 
nose, the lower ears, the belly 
and the antlers. Its face bears 
black triangular marks, and a 
slanting black line under the 
eye. It is stout and large in 
size, has a bushy tail, and its 
three-foot horns run straight 
back without spreading; they 
are annulated on the lower half. 
Its habitat is Abyssinia. 

The Gemsbok {Oryx ca- 
pensis ) is sometimes called the 
kokama , is nearly four feet in 
height, and has South Africa as its habitat. It is prevailingly gray in color, 
but the flanks, hind-quarters, tail and back are black, and it has a black 
streak across its face. It has an erect short mane, and long, heavy, sharp- 
pointed horns, which it has been known to use to the discomfiture of the lion. 
It is supposed by many to require no water, but others more reasonably sup- 


ABYSSINIAN BEISA. 






THE LIVING WORLD 








THE LIVING WORLD. 


599 


pose that it finds its supplies in moist plants. It is too shy to be stalked, and 
stays too far from water to be “ pitted.” Hence it is hunted by mounted men, 
and the palatableness of the flesh is esteemed a sufficient reward. 

The Oryx Gemsbok (Oryx lucoryx) is grayish, with black and brown mark¬ 
ings spread over its body. It is somewhat shorter than the gemsbok, but car¬ 
ries horns three feet in length. Its habitat is northern Africa. 

The Addox, Spotted-nose Antelope, Mahyna, or Lyrate-horned Ante- 



gazeeees {Antelope dorcas ) and beisa {Oryx beisa ). 



lope (Addox nasomaculatus) , is found in eastern Africa and is distinguished by 
short, lyre-shaped horns and white nose-markings. 

The Roan Antelope, or Bastard Gemsbok (Hippotragus equinus , or leu - 
cophoeus ), is nearly as 
large as the eland, and 
carries long, massive 
horns of which it makes 
good use when cornered. 

It is solitary in its habits 
and not commonly met 
with, though not at all 
scarce among the African 
fauna. Its hair is unusu¬ 
ally long and of a brown¬ 
ish-gray, except on the 
under parts where it is 
white. Its mane is long, 
thick, and bright brown 
in color. Its erect head, 

set off by sharply-pointed wild dogs {Lycaon pidus) pursuing a sable antelope {Oryx leucoryx). 
ears, is supported by a 

neck whose curl is exceedingly graceful and striking. 

The Maharif (Hippotragus bakeri) is mouse-colored, although its face is 
striped in black and white. Sir Samuel Baker, in his charming narration of 
his African travels, speaks of securing the horns of a maharif which had been 







6oo 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


killed and eaten by a lion, who seemed willing to divide with mankind if they 
would accept the indigestible portions of the antelope. 

The Ariel Gazelle (Gazella ariel , or dama ) is not allowed by many natu¬ 
ralists to constitute a distinct species. The back and upper portions of the 



HERD OE AFRICAN ANTELOPES. 



body are a dark fawn color, banded with black along its sides, and white upon 
the abdomen. Its habitat is Arabia and Syria, and its grace and docility has 

converted it into a house¬ 
hold pet. In fleetness^, 
it is not approached by 
the swiftest hunting-dog, 
and it seems to float 
rather than run over 
the ground. This little 
animal is less than two 
feet in height, and is 
hunted out of proportion 
to its insignificant size. 
In hunting for sport, 
falcons are used, and the 
trained bird by its at¬ 
tacks so confuses the 
gazelle that it uniformly 
falls a victim. When 
hunted for its flesh, a 
large stone-walled corral 
is built and the animals 
blesbok ( Bubaii aibiferus). driven into it. At inter¬ 

vals have been left low 

walls, on the outer side of which are wide pits or trenches. The gazelles 
attempt to escape over these and fall into the trap prepared for them. 

The American world has grown so cosmopolitan in its tastes that there is 









THE LIVING WORLD. 


601 


no quarter of the globe which some of its people have not penetrated—no litera¬ 
ture too foreign for it to be unknown to some, at least, among American 
readers. Firdnsi and other Persian poets have not only exercised great influ¬ 
ence upon Byron and Moore and other British poets, but their works have 
become familiar to many an American reader. Among the most frequent com¬ 
parisons made by Persian poets are those in which a part is played by the 
Asiatic gazelle, or jairou, ahu, or dsherin. 

The African Gazelle ( Gazella dorcas) is described at length by Sir Samuel 
Baker, who lays special emphasis upon their adaptation to life in the desert, 
their beauty, and their strength and symmetry of development. It is unusu¬ 
ally fleet, but it is sometimes caught by the hounds because it is ignorant of 
the fable of the hare and the tortoise. 

After it has distanced its pursuers it 
will stop in reckless defiance and ex¬ 
haust its strength in vainglorious 
exhibitions of its ability as a leaper. 

The hounds “ sticking strictly to busi¬ 
ness ” finally overtake the gazelle when 
it has exhausted its strength. It is 
clothed in satin whose color varies 
from a golden-brown to a mauve; the 
belly and the legs below the knee are 
spotless white. Its head is lighted by 
the most perfect of oriental eyes and 
ornamented with black, curved, annu- 
lated horns, a full foot in length. 

The Ugogo ( Gazella granti) wears 
fawn color and purple, and its skin 
looks like watered silk. Its horns con¬ 
verge at the two extremities and are 
two feet in length. Its habitat is like¬ 
wise African. 

The Springbok ( Gazella euchore') 

is named from the extraordinary fly¬ 
ing-leaps which it makes. It will leap 
as high as twelve feet into the air—and 
that without the aid of any spring¬ 
board. It is a cinnamon-brown above, 
spotless white below, and has these colors separated by a reddish-brown band. 
It is unusually shy and timid, and especially dislikes the company of human 
beings. Trustworthy travellers tell us that it carries this dislike so far that it 
will always leap over any road or pathway that man has trod. The springbok , 
like all the other boks, is liable to have its name spelled in as many different ways 
as that of Shakespeare, so that the reader need not be troubled if he reads in 
other works of the springbock , springbuk or springbuck . It is abundant about 
the Cape of Good Hope, in spite of its frequent slaughter. It is gregarious, 
and accounts of herds of springboks are frequent in all accounts of southern 
Africa. It has been known to migrate in herds of forty thousands. 

The Pallah, or Roovebok {/Epyceros melampus ), runs in large herds 






602 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


throughout southern Africa. It is of a bay color, which changes to white on 
the abdomen and at the base of the tail. Its haunches are ornamented with a 
black half-moon, and it stands upon hoofs of the deepest jet. Its horns are 
lyrate, ringed, and nearly two feet in length. The pallah has too much self- 
confidence to be timid, but when a herd decides to put a greater distance between 
themselves and their enemies, they will solemnly stalk away in single file. The 
pallah is gregarious only in the winter season. , 

The Saiga ( Saiga tartarica) is an antelope of the steppes which m graceful¬ 
ness rivals the gazelle. In appearance, however, it is very like a sheep, so far 
as its head and face are concerned. It has long tufts of hair beneath the eyes, 
and corresponding ear fringes. It is quite celebrated for its achievements in the 
matter of butting and jumping. Its horns are erect, annulated, transparent and 
yellow, and are never worn by the female. Its nose is no nose, but a snout \ 
its forehead is covered with folds which run crosswise. It moves in large bodies 



springboks (Antidorcas euchore). 


several thousand being no uncom¬ 
mon spectacle. When upon the 
march it keeps up a large service 
of scouts and officers, and provides a rear guard to prevent being surprised. 

The gazelles when attacked by a panther will arrange themselves in a 
circle with their heads making the circumference, and invariably succeed in 
protecting themselves against their dangerous enemy. 

The Prong-horned Antelope (-. Antilocapra americana ) is called likewise the 
cabrit , prong-buck , cabree and North American springbok. Its home is on the 
western plains. Its horns are pronged at the point of curvature, in which respect 
it is singular among hollow-horned animals. It sheds its horns annually. Its 
color is a brownish-yellow above and a white below; its brown face grows white 
on the cheeks, and it wears on its throat a crescent and a triangle both of 
which are white; white also prevails on the haunches, and sometimes on the 
tail. It is gregarious only when migrating, or during the rutting season. Its 
venison is held in high esteem, and while its fleetness might easily insure its 
safety it falls a victim to the weakness which endangered the life and happiness 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


603 




of Bluebeard’s wife and her sister Anne. The hunters find that by merely tying 
a colored cloth to their guns they can approach quite near to this over-curious 
antelope. Its habitat is from the Pacific slope to the Missouri river. 

The Reedbuck (Cervicapra arundinacea ) is a hooked-horned antelope of 
southern Africa. It frequents the reeds and moves about in couples. It is 
about five feet in 
length and three in 
height, exclusive o f 
an additional foot for 
its horns. Its ashen- 
gray color becomes 
white on the under 
parts. Its forays upon 
the cornfields render 
its destruction an 
imperious necessity to 
the farmer. It is not 
difficult of approach, 
as it will lie still in 
the reeds until the 
hunter almost stum¬ 
bles over it, when 
with a chamois-like 
whistle it jumps up, 
gallops a short dis¬ 
tance, and then stops 
to take a fresh observation. This toying with fate is less hazardous than 
would appear at first sight, for although not invulnerable, it is somewhat rhi¬ 
noceros-like in its general indifference to bullets. When 
about to take to flight it always whistles to its mate, 
so that hunters employ the reedbuck whistle as a decoy. 
It is sometimes called the umseke or the rietbok. 

The Waterbuck, Photomok, Waterbok, or Kobus 
(.Kobus ellipsiprymnus ), wanders about South Africa in 
small herds, and when disturbed takes at once to the 
water. It is brown except for a white ellipse at the 
base of the tail. Its horns are about two and a half 
feet in length, rather inclined to be lyrate, and bent 
back until they near their extremities when they again 
bend, but forward. Sir Samuel Baker on.one occasicn 
succeeded in bringing to bay upon an island a water 
antelope. antelope and two koodoo bucks, and was fortunate 

enough to shoot all three. On another occasion he 
rode down, after an exciting race, a koodoo buck. White is the color of 
chest, abdomen and eye-orbits ; brown prevails on the front legs, while the body 
is brownish-yellow and the tail black-tufted. The neck is the vulnerable part 
—if shot elsewhere it is as safe as Achilles, and as tenacious of life as a cat. 
For example, a water antelope which had been mortally wounded, took to the 
water where it was seized by a crocodile. In spite of its expiring strength 


SAIGA ANTELOPE, oe The steppes ( Saiga tartarica). 










THE LIVING WORLD. 


604 

it dragged the crocodile from the water and several yards on the land, and 
finally escaped from it to die peacefully in the rushes. 

The Leche (. Kobus leche ) is another species of African waterbok, but, strange 
to say, it cannot swim, and hence contents itself with wading in the shallows. 
The leche is found feeding in herds positively enormous in size. When the 
flooding of the flats drives the leches to the mounds, the natives with their light 
canoes chase them from mound to mound, and succeed in spearing great 
numbers of them. 

The Pookoo ( Kobus vardoni ) is red in coloring and haunts the immediate 
vicinity of the rivers. 

The Klipperspringer, or Kawdi (. Nanotragus neotragus ), is a peculiarly 
attractive antelope belonging to South Africa. Like the chamois, it skims over 



WATERBOKS ( Photomok ). 

rock and precipice in the most seemingly reckless manner. The natives believe 
that the klipperspringer can, at its will, bring rain, and are therefore in the 
habit of catching and worrying these creatures during periods of drought. It 
is about a foot and three-quarters in height. Its coat consists of gray hairs 
which become brown towards the middle and yellow at the tips. 

The Steinbuck (Nanotragus neotragus ) is nocturnal, sleeping in fastnesses 
during the day and issuing at twilight. The Madoqua is the smallest, 
most fragile-looking and most charming of the antelopes. It is barely more 
than a foot in height, and most beautifully symmetrical. Its brilliant silvery- 
gray lightens into white on the under parts and at the base of the tail, and 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


605 




deepens into chestnut along the back. It is frequently spoken of by the great 
Bruce in his accounts of the Abyssinian country. The madoqua is a mountaineer 
and is not gregarious. 

The Diver Antelope, Duyker, Duykerbok, Impoon ( Cephalophus mergens ), 

takes its name from its _ 

habit of diving into the 
brush, and is a solitary little an¬ 
telope of southern Africa,whose 
ingenious devices for protect¬ 
ing himself are alike numerous 
and curious. When approached 
it will leap over bushes and 
again dive through them, mak¬ 
ing so many sharp turns as to 
make it almost impossible for 
man or dog to follow it. It 
will then quietly crawl along 
under the bushes for quite a 
distance, when it will jump to 
its feet and bound away. Even 
when a shot is had the sports¬ 
men will often lose the game ARABIAN gazeli.es opposing a leopard. 

because of its power of carry¬ 
ing without great inconvenience quite a heavy load of shot. It belongs to 
southern Africa. It is small, gray, and has straight, sharp horns. It is very 

tenacious of life and will frequently turn to 
bay and charge the hunter. 

The Four-horned Antelope, or 
Chouka ( Tetracerus quadricornus) , is an 
Indian species. The front horns, situated 
just above the eyes, are short, the back 
pair longer; the female wears no horns. 
The four-horned antelope is only about a 
foot and three-quarters in height, and is 
bay above and gray beneath. 

The Chamois (. Rupicapra) is a wary, 
mountain antelope, gregarious in its habits. 
It always keeps a sentinel upon guard, and 
when danger is announced the whole herd 
gives one look of inspection before taking 
to flight. The chamois can be domesticated 
and converted into a household pet. It is 
brownish-yellow, with a black' streak along 
the back; in winter the color becomes 
blackish-brown. The face and throat are 
chamois. a yellowish-white, varied by a dark bank 

forming rings about the eyes, and extending 
thence to the corners of the mouth. The horns, doubtless familiar as articles 
of ornament, are jet-black, sharp-tipped and highly polished; they are about 







6o5 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


seven inches long. The heights which the chamois scales, its grace and agility, 
and the excitements and perils of the chamois -hunter are too often described to 
be more than alluded to in such a work as The Living World. 

The Gnu, Gnoo, Wildebeest (Connochetes gnu), is a South African animal 

which looks as 
if some one in 
sport had put 
together parts 
of the ante¬ 
lope, the ox 
and the horse, 
or as if the 
•fabulous forms 
of heathen an- 
tiquity had 
some substra¬ 
tum of fact 
upon which to 
rest. The 
head, like that 
of the buffalo, 
is armed with 
wide-spread¬ 
ing horns, 
which first 
bending down¬ 
ward again 
curve upward 
and terminate 
in sharp 
points; the 
body and tail 
are those o f 
the horse, 
while the an¬ 
telope charac¬ 
ter pronounces 
itself most dis¬ 
tinctively i n 
the legs and 
feet. They 
are gregarious 
and the herds 
are large. 

They frequently associate with the ostrich, the giraffe and the zebra. They are 
curious, suspicious and capricious. When their attention is caught by any unusual 
appearance, they will begin pawing, capering and bellowing; will leap high in 
air, begin to fight each other, and finally take precipitately to flight. It is 
susceptible of domestication, but is so much favored by the bot-fly as to render 



CHAMOIS DEFENDING ITS YOUNG. 















THE LIVING WORLD. 607 

it an unwelcome addition to the domestic herd. It is usually dark brown or 
black, except the mane and tail, which are white. 

The Brindled Gnu ( Catoblephas gorgon ) has no mane on its chest, is 
taller, always moves in single file, and is striped with gray. 

The Yakin (. Budorcina taxicolor) is found on the steeps of the Himalayas, 
and exhibits a nose which might properly belong to a sheep, and a tail which 
seems to have been borrowed from a goat. 

The Blue Gnu ( Catoblephas taurina ) is still found in Zululand, and the 
black stripes on the neck and shoulders, its long and flowing mane as well, 
together with its black tail and symmetrical form, render it quite a sightly 
creature to behold. Suspicious, timid, curious about strange objects, and 
exceedingly irritable, their performances, when startled, are indescribably 
ludicrous. Its curiosity is frequently fatal to the gnu, for, at the sight 
of a strange object, it will gallop about it in constantly decreasing circles, 
until it brings itself within reach of the hunter who then kills it at his 
leisure. A blue gnu was being harried by two of Sir Samuel Baker’s 

hunting dogs, when it used its ox-like horns and spitted the younger 
and more venturesome dog. The other dog would run away until it 
exhausted the patience of its pursuer, when it would turn and begin its work 
all over again. Baker says that he was so much interested that nothing but 
presence of 
mind and a 
'quick and 
1 ucky shot 
made it possi¬ 
ble for him to 
live to tell the 
tale, for the 
gnu suddenly 
charged upon 
the hunter. 

The gnu is a 
stoic, for on 
one occasion, 
in spite of a 
broken shoul¬ 
der-blade and 
a broken hind 
leg, a gnu ran 
six miles be¬ 
fore the hunter 
succeeded i n 
killing it. A 

blue gnu , or gnus. 

wildebeest , was 

found, which while fighting had got one of its legs over one of its horns, 
and was compelled to wander around in a manner at once uncomfortable, 
awkward and comical, until an African traveller relieved its discomfort by the 
application of a bullet. 



6o8 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


droppe< 


The Hartebeest, or Lecama (. Bubalus caama), is about five feet high, and 
moves about in herds of ten or twelve, which contain but one male. It is 
grayish-brown in color, with a black streak on the face, a brown patch on the 
outside of the legs, and a triangular white mark on the haunches. Its thick 
horns, knotted at the base, become lyre-shaped, and then suddenly curve at 
right angles. Its habitat is tropical Africa. It is very strong, and so swift 
that it cannot be run down with dogs. On one occasion a hartebeest upset a 
horse, nearly killed the rider and completely wore out the dogs before it 
)ed from utter exhaustion. 

'he Bubale of Northern Africa (. Alcephalus bubalis ) is substantially only 
a variety of the hartebeest. 

The Saisin, or Indian Antelope ( Antilope bezoartica) , runs in herds of about 
fifty, which, however, contain but one buck. It is so swift as to be hunted 

successfully only by means of the falcon. It 
is said to jump twenty-five feet at each bound, 
and to spring some ten feet above the ground. 
The young males are promptly expelled from 
the herd, and at once undertake the task of 
gathering unto themselves wives from their 
neighbor’s flocks. The young are grayish-brown 
or black, with white for the abdomen, circles 
about the eyes, breast and lips. It is fre¬ 
quently called the black buck , stands thirty- 
three inches at the shoulder, and has a length 
of forty-six inches, exclusive of the tail. In 
middle life it is fawn above and white below, 
but as the bucks grow older, they become 
brown on the neck and head. It wears black 
vertical shoulder-stripes, and its black hofns 
are four or five-spurred. 

The Grysbuck (. Nanotragus malantis ) is 
chestnut-red in color, with white hairs scat¬ 
tered over it. The ears are unusually long 
and the tail correspondingly short. It is an inhabitant of southern Africa. 

The Ourebi (, Scopophorus ourebz) will suffer death rather than forsake a 
favorite locality, and if all of one herd be killed off, others, by some strange 
law of instinct, will appear to assert the pre-emption claims of the family. It 
lives in pairs among the long grass. When in flight it bounds into the air 
from time to time for the purpose of taking observations. When pursued it 
will run from side to side, bound into the air, and frequently change or even 
reverse its course. It will go crouching through the tall grass and conceal 
itself behind an ant-hill, but as soon as the hunter has passed it will leap up 
and speed away. In color it is tawny above and white beneath. It is found 
in the region of the Cape of Good Hope, and is handsome, graceful and 
its flesh is palatable. It prefers treeless plains and the flatter portions of the 
country. 

The Sable Antelope, or Pontaquaine (. Hippotragus niger ), is shy and 
crafty, and never approaches the South African villages. It is glossy black in 
color, which contrasts strikingly with the snow-white of the belly. The horns, 



alpine ibex ( Capra ibex). 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


609 




HIMALAYAN IBEX. 


some three feet long, sweep back nearly to the haunches. It lives in very 
small herds and the bucks make the females do sentinel duty, and their vigi¬ 
lance is such that they are very rarely 
hunted with success. 

The Blue Buck ( Cephalopus pygmcea) 
is only about two feet in length, and but 
a foot in height. It is dark blue in color, 
and its two-inch horns are straight and 
closely ringed. Its color is such a pro¬ 
tection that it is seldom killed. It belongs 
to South Africa. It lives on the hillside, 
and moves about in herds of ten or twelve. 

It is remarkably swift and active. Its fore¬ 
head is tufted. 

The Sassaby, or Bastard Hartebeest 

{Damalis lunatus) , is reddish-brown, having 
a blackish-brown stripe down the middle 
of the face. It lives near the southern 
limit of the American tropical zone, and 
is always a welcome sight to the thirsty 
traveller, for its presence tells of water 
near at hand. It is much sought for its fiesh, which is held in high esteem. 

The Munni, Pied Antelope, White-faced Antelope, or Bontebok 

(Damalis pjyarga), is purplish, with black¬ 
ish-brown on the outside of the legs, and 
white upon the inside of the legs the 
haunches and the face. It is larger than 
the stag, and has a wealth of horns which, 
annulated and black in color, attain a 
length of a foot and a quarter. It is found 
in the region of the Cape of Good Hope. 

The Blaze Buck, or Bless Buck 
(.Damalis albifrons ), is a species closely 
connected with the nunni, which also have 
the blazed face, from which this species 
takes its name. It is South African in 
habitat. 

The Natal Bushbuck, or Rhoode- 
bok, or Red Buck ( CephalopJius nata- 
lensis ), lives a solitary life in the densest 
parts of the forests. It is about two feet 
high and wears straight, long-pointed horns. 
Its deep red color reflects the light and 
helps to conceal the animal. When 
mouflon {Ovis musimori). alarmed, it keeps moving its large ears 

and walks, as it were, on tip-toe. If a twig 
snaps, it stops at once in whatever attitude it may be, and then again, after 
this dramatic display, moves on with the same caution. If satisfied of the 
reality of the danger, it at once bounds away into the forest. It is yel- 


39 








6 io 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



lowish-red above, gray below, and has a tuft of hair growing out of its 

forehead. . 

The Koodoo (. Strepsiceros kudu ) is South African, stands about four teet m 
height, is heavy, not very swift or enduring. Its three feet of horns are much 
twisted and keeled throughout. It runs in herds of four or five and, though living 
in the brushwood, finds no inconvenience from its antlers, which it lays back, after 
the manner of the moose. It is reddish-gray, with streaks of white on back 
and sides. Its flesh is specially palatable, so. that the koodoo is frequently 
hunted. The natives, in imitation of the method of the wild dogs, take turns 
chasing the koodoo at full speed and falling back when exhausted. Such a 

hunting party includes women 
who act as vivandieres. It is 
often called the nellut , and the 
males incline to a bluer-gray 
than the females. 

The antelopes may be 
conveniently separated, so far 
as the African fauna is con¬ 
cerned, into those which affect 
the open country and those 
which prefer the thickets and the 
thorn-scrub. To the former be¬ 
long the ourebi, steinbok, vaal 
roebok, klipperspringer, and 
reed buck. To the latter class 
we must assign the duyker and 
roebuck. The natives will form 
hunting parties of as many as 
eight hundred persons and, 
making a circle of miles, will 
gradually close in upon the 
game. The slaughter of antelopes is specially great, but not unfrequently 
some of the animals will jump sheer of the heads of the hunters. Antelopes, 
gnus and zebras seem fond of one another’s companionship and are generally 
found pasturing together. 


maned goat (Ovis trogelaphus ). 


UNGULATES.—SHEEP. 


The Musimon, or Corsican Sheep ( Ovis musimon ,) seems to be the primi¬ 
tive type of the useful, familiar and much-praised domestic sheep. It dresses 
not in wool, however, but in hair which, short in the warm season, begins to 
grow wavy as cold weather approaches. It is brown above and white beneath. 

The Asiatic Wild Sheep {Ovis orientalis } or gmelini ,) is the most graceful 
of sheep, suggesting the deer just as the saiga antelope suggests the sheep. 
It is abundant in the salt lake regions of Asia Minor. It varies through the 
different shades of red to deep-brown, but is white on the abdomen and on the 
inner parts of the legs. 

The Turkestan Sheep {Ovis kerelini ) has been made the subject of a 
monograph by Severtzolf, who has also discussed another Turkestan species 
{Ovis poli ), which has a different coloring but is substantially the same in habits. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


611 



The Argali (Ovis ammon) seems to represent the earliest living type, and 
is found in the Himalayas, which appear to have been the nursery of the sheep 
as well as of the human family. 

The Nayaur ( Ovis hodgsonii) belongs to the fauna of Thibet, although it is 
found also in Nepaul. It wears a white collar on its lower neck and carries a 
short mane. 

The Atlas Mountains furnish the Atlas Maned Sheep ( Ovis tragelaphus ), 
which is seemingly an intermediate form between the sheep and the goat, as 
though, in tribal 
differentiation, i t 
had endeavored to 
go two ways at 
once. . 

The Spanish, 
or Merino Sheep 
(Ovis aries-his- 
panica ), has, like 
all that is Spanish, 
a long and hon¬ 
orable record. It 
is large, and the 
ram has great, spi¬ 
ral horns. It has 
a black face and 
exhibits a constant 
disposition to re¬ 
vert to a black 
color. The wool 
•of these sheep and 
the skin of their 
kids are the source 
of its interest to 


TURKISH SHEEP. 


man. 

The Maned 
Sheep, or Goat, is 
six feet in length 
•of body and three 
feet in stature. 

Its curly fleece is 
not like that of 
our common spe¬ 
cies, but is a rusty brown. Its tail is nearly a foot in length and very bushy; 
its horns are stout and long, and sharply curved over the head; its mane is 
short, but as a compensation it has long chin-whiskers, and regular valances 
of hair hang from the shoulders to the feet. 

The Turkish Sheep ( Ovis aries-steatpygci) has become quite celebrated as 
using its tail as a reservoir for the fat which it accumulates. 

The Cape Sheep are not the celebrated fat-tailed sheep, whose caudal 
appendage is considered such a table delicacy, but they are prized by the 











6 l2 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




inhabitants alike for their mutton, the fat stored up in the tail and hind- 
auarters, and for their wool, which is very abundant, soft and warm. 

H The Afghan 

Fat-tailed Sheep is 
notable for the size 
and fatness of its 
tail and the silki¬ 
ness of its coat. The 
fleece is exported 
and forms an im¬ 
portant article of 
commerce. 

The Wallach- 
ian Sheep is found 
in Wallachia and 
Hungary. Its fleece 
is long and silken 
and its large horns 
spiral. 

The Siberian 
Argali, or Mouflon 

{Caprovis argali ), 
is about as large as 
an ox, and has horns 
four feet long, and 
nearly a foot and 
three-quarters 
around, measured 
at the base. These 
hkau OF mkkino sheep. homs,risingstraight 

at first, next curve as far as the chin, when they again curve upward. It is 
a mountaineer and climbs the rocks with a rapidity and ease which are as 
surprising as unexpected. They 
are sometimes buried in snowdrifts, 
when hunters take advantage of 
their helplessness. 

The Rocky Mountain Big¬ 
horn (Ovis montana ) runs in small 
herds over the crags of California. 

Its flesh is highly esteemed, but 
the animal is shy and not often 
captured. 

The Bearded Argali, or Aou- 

dad {Ammotragus tragelaphus ), has 
its habitat in northern Africa, and is 
a large animal which sports about musk sheep. 

the rocks and precipices as though it were the smallest of chamois. Its fore 
legs are ruffled above the knees and have given it the name of the ruffled 
mouflon. 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


613 



The Musk Sheep (Ovibos moschatus) is frequently called a musk-ox, and 
naturalists are not wholly as one at to where the animal should be classed. 
Its habitat is the North Polar region, but it is rarely found and is best known 
through fossil forms, which have interest and value for the student of the suc¬ 
cession in evolutionary life. It belongs to North America and the Esquimaux 
call it the voming noak. It is long-haired, fleet, irritable and dangerous. The 
horns of the bull curve downward around the head until they reach the eyes, 
when they 
curve upward. 

Its covering 
of long, thick 
hair gives the 
appearance of 
great ampli¬ 
tude to a really 
small body. 

Its height is 
about three 
feet, and its 
length eight 
feet. It is 
amber-colored 
and during 
the summer 
it sheds its 
long fine coat. 

The musky 
odor is always 
present, but 
does not, ex¬ 
cept at certain 
seasons, im¬ 
pregnate the 
flesh. It wan¬ 
ders about in 
herds of not 
more than 
twenty or 
twenty-five 

and the bull, which plays the role of the head of the family, always keeps 
sentinels posted. The viusk sheep have deadly contests with the bulls of other 
herds and with the bears, and in the latter case the sheep are generally victo¬ 
rious. When angry the musk sheep whines like a walrus. 


HEAD OF WILD MOUNTAIN GOAT. 


UNGULATES.—GOATS. 

The Ibex, Steinbock, Steinbok, Steinbuck, Steinbuk, or Bouquetin, 

(Capra ibex), is Alpine in its habitat, and is eminent among the horn-wearing 
animals. Its color changes from the reddish-brown of summer to the grayish- 
brown of winter; the belly and the inside of the legs are white or gray; the 















THE LIVING WORLD. 


614 



face and back have a dark stripe running along them. The horns are familiar 
as the handles of paper-cutters, and are about three feet in length, and full of 
ridges. It moves about under the guidance of a male who maintains military 
discipline over his herd of five or ten. He always posts one or more senti¬ 
nels who, at the least suspicion of danger, whistle for the herd to fly to the 
heights above. 

The Spanish Goat ( Capra pyrenaica ) is harmless, lives on the mountain 
oeaks and is rapidly becoming extinct as a species. 
It is sometimes called the ibex of the Pyrenees , and 
at other times the tur. 

The Jemlah Goat, or Jharal (. Hemitragus 
jemlaicus ), lives on the highest Indian mountain 
peaks, on the borders of perennial snow. Flocks 
of about twenty-five, under the guidance of a male, 
descend during the day to pasture. It is a grayish- 
fawn in color, has a brown mark on the forehead 
and the front of the legs, and a dark streak on 
the back. They wear a long mane falling down 
on both sides of the neck. The hair is coarse and 
long, and the horns, wide at the base, keep spread¬ 
ing, until suddenly they narrow and nearly meet 
in two points. 

The Cashmir Goat ( Capra falconeri ) has its 
habitat in Thibet, and its wool or hair is a well- 
known article of commerce. The animal wears 
two coats, an outer of long silken hairs and an 
inner of soft, gray wool; it is the latter which is 
used in manufacture, and its costliness will be ex¬ 
plained when it is understood that seven goats 
must be despoiled to make but one yard of the 
woven fabric. Of course, governmental taxes and 
the charges of commerce greatly increase the cost 
of the fabric, but then the material is expensive 
in first hands. 

The Bezoar Goat ( Capra cegagrus ) belongs 
to Persia and the Caucasian mountain ranges. 
Like some valetudinarians it is subject to attacks 
of stone, and the stones found in the stomach of 
this animal have quite a legendary history among 
the superstitious, who regard them as a trustworthy 
antidote to poisons. Naturalists are not agreed as 
to the original of the domestic goat, but many of 
authority assign this honor to the bezoar , which 

WILD MOUNTAIN SHEEP PLUNGING • 1 J 1 ®i ^ • 1 r j- 

down a precipice. certainly has the typical powers ot digestion. 

The Perbura, or Ram Segul, is an Indian 
goat, singular through having a smooth, white fur (sparsely intermingled with 
red), a large dewlap for the male, short ears and no beard. 

The Syrian Goat has long, pendent ears, which reach nearly to the 
shoulders. 





THE LIVING WORLD. 


6i 5 


The Snake-eating Goat, or Markhur, is found in India and Thibet, and 
wears unusually large horns, whose convolutions are exceedingly complicated. 

The Rocky Mountain Goat ( Aplocerus montanus) is an antelope with small, 
recurved horns, sheep-like nose, short and furry lower coat, and upper coat long 
and pendent. 

CARNIVORA.—COONS, COATIS, ETC. 



The Raccoon (Procyon lotor) is to those who reside in certain parts of the 
United States a familiar object. It wears a short, thick, woolly undergarment 
of gray, and an overcoat of long black and gray hairs. The top of the head 
is dark brown, and there is a 
band of the same color across 
the eyes, and the same bands 
or rings adorn the bushy tail. 

It is a common pet, but is so 
mischievous and destructive as 
sadly to try the patience of its 
owner. It is substantially om¬ 
nivorous, and will drink any¬ 
thing liquid. • It has a habit of 
never eating anything without 
having first washed it, and this 
pronounced affectation of cleanli¬ 
ness has given it the name of 
lotor , or the washer. Its agility, 
subtle cleverness, abundance and 
desirability as an article of food 
(to those who like its flesh), lead 
to its being constantly hunted, 
and few boys in the Southern 
States have been without the ex¬ 
perience of u coon hunting.” 

The raccoon hunt is not dis¬ 
similar to the “ possum hunt,” 
and is very exciting. Most com¬ 
monly the raccoon is tracked and 
treed by the dogs, and a fire 
having been built enclosing the 
tree, some one of the hunters climbs up and dislodges the game, after which 
the fun begins, and soon grows warm and furious. The least experienced dogs, 
stimulated by the presence of the rest of the pack and the shouts of the hunt¬ 
ers, will rush upon the raccoon and seize it by the nearest part of its body. 
This usually results disastrously for the dogs, as the raccoon speedily dis¬ 
courages them by the liberal use of its teeth. The alternations of fortune, 
the ioy in the success of one’s favorite dog, and the no less pleasure in the 
discomfiture of the vaunted pet of some one else, keep one’s interest from 
flas-eine in spite of the absolute certainty of the result. # 

The Raccoon Fox, Ring-tailed Raccoon, Mountain Cat, or Cacomixle, 
(Passaris astuta ), is a Mexican animal, dun in color, and wearing a dark cape on 
its neck; its back has a black stripe, and its tale is ringed with white. 


HUNTING THE MOUNTAIN SHEEP- 






(6i6) 


A COATI FAMILY, 






























































































































































































































the living world. 


61,7 

The Crab-eating Raccoon, Agoura, Raton, Maxile (Procyon cancrivora) 

is possibly no fonder of mollusks and custaceans than is the common raccoon 
but its opportunities are greater. It is larger than the common raccoon, grayish- 
black mixed with yellow, and its short tail exhibits six black rings. It has 
great skill in opening oysters, but sometimes miscalculates, and takes a leading 
role m the play of 14 The Biter bit.” Its habitat is Central America. 

The California Raccoon, or Psora (Procyon psora), is taller, and is said 
to resemble a dog. 

The Black-footed Raccoon (Procyon hernandozii) is found on the Pacific 
slope, and resembles the crab-eater. It is larger, and its black foot markings 
give it its popular name. 

The Coati have a very small proboscis or a very long snout, which serves 
many purposes, but which is not used in drinking. They are arboreal and 
gregarious. 

The Mundeo, or Red Coati (Nasua solitario), is red in color except for 
its black ears and legs, white hair on its jaws, and maroon banded tail. It is 
a ready climber, and whether 
ascending or descending 
always goes head first. It is 
nocturnal, and its liveliness 
by night is in marked con¬ 
trast to its slothfulness by 
day. When wounded or irri¬ 
tated it is a desperate and for¬ 
midable fighter. 

The Potto (Lemur fiavus, 

Cercoleptes caudivolvulus, Vi- 
verra caudivolvula ,) was “ some¬ 
time a paradox,” having been 
classed with weasels and le¬ 
murs. It is widely distributed 
throughout South America, 
and hence fairly revels in a 
multitude of names, of which 
the reader may meet with the 
yellow lemur, the honey bear, 
the yellow macanco, the kink- 
ajou, the guchumbi and the manaviri. In color it is dun, banded lightly with 
a darker color. Its tongue is capable of the most alarming projection and 
serves all the uses of a miniature proboscis. It uses its tail as an extra paw, 
both in climbing and in bringing objects near to it. It is so entirely 
nocturnal, as to be owl-like or bat-like in the light of day. Though fierce 
in its natural state, it is easily domesticated and becomes a playful and 
affectionate pet. 

The Wah Chitwa, or Panda (Allurus fulgens),\s arboreal and lives near 
rivers and streams in Nepaul. Its fur is chestnut-colored, darkening on the 
legs and ribs. The head is fawn-colored, except for a red spot under the eyes 
and the tail is ringed; its head is short and has a muzzle. It is not often 
met with, but when seen, rewards the lucky observer. 



POTTO, OR SPOTTED PARODOXURE. 



618 THE LIVING WORLD. 

CARNIVORA.—BEARS. 

The Sloth Bear, Honey Bear, Jungle Bear (Melursus labiatus), belongs 
to India and is so generously provided with lips as to make these his most 


sloth bear {Melursus labiatus ). 

striking feature. It very early loses its teeth, so that it is more dependent 
than most bears upon food in a liquid form, such as honey, for instance. It 






the living world. 



is black in color, except a white tipping on the feet and nose, and a yellowish 
white mark, resembling - a capital V and which is found on the breast. Its 
hair is long, thick and nnkempt-looking. Its queer appearance added to its 
grotesque movements, its teachableness and gentleness, render it a favorite 
with the u travelling showmen ” of the country where it is found. It regards the 
ants as a specially delicate article of food and captures them in a very singular 
manner, by blowing powerfully until he scatters the particles composing the 
ant-hills and then capturing the ants by successive powerful inhalations. In 
its attacks upon bee-hives it derives protection from the long hair which falls 
over its forehead and 
eyes. Though, as 
has been said, amiable 
and tame, it is quite 
ferocious in its na¬ 
tive state, and as it 
is some five feet in 
length and quite 
stout, it is an adver¬ 
sary to be dreaded. 

The Malayan 
Sun Bear (.Helarctos 
malayanus ) differs 
from the Thibetan 
species in that it sub¬ 
stitutes for the white 
under jaw a white 
nose-muff. Its lips 
are unusually flexi¬ 
ble and its tongue 
susceptible of almost 
indefinite protrusion. 

It has little, violet- 
colored eyes, is long- 
clawed and muscular 
out of proportion to 
its four and a half 

feet of length. It is brown bear. 

readily domesticated, 

when it makes a most amusing and agreeable pet, associating freely with any 
animal, and displaying no vices and no weaknesses other than a fondness for 
sweet wines. Its favorite position is that of seating itself upon its hind legs, 
and when thus made comfortable, it will roll its body about, gesticulate as ab¬ 
surdly as the “ dumb orator,” thrust out and withdraw its tongue, and altogether 
serve the uses of a light comedian. It is often called the bruang. The Thi¬ 
betan species loves to bask in the hottest sunshine. It is stoutly built, has a 
thick neck, large ears and is very active. Its coloring is black throughout, 
except for a letter Y in white upon its breast, and white upon its lower jaw. 

The Sun Bear, or Bruang of Borneo (.Helarctos eurysipilus ), is not unlike 
the Malayan species. It replaces the white breast-mark of the latter by orange. 













620 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


No tree is too tall or too smooth-barked for its climbing, and it is specially 
fond of the tender top-shoots of the cocoanut palm, of the cocoanuts themselves 
and of the cocoanut milk. When domesticated, it is very fond of attention, 
and when it considers itself treated with insufficient consideration, it will refuse 
to treat further with the persons whom it regards as having hurt its feelings. 

The Spectacled Bear (Ursus omatus) is found in the Cordilleras. It is a 
black bear, with yellow semicircles about its eyes. 

The Brown Bear (Ursus omatus ) is found in the mountainous countries of 
Asia and Europe. When young it wears a white bib or collar, which is dis¬ 
pensed with as the animal grows older. It weighs over seven hundred pounds 
and does not attain its growth until its twentieth year. It is naturally fru- 
givorous, but after having once tasted blood becomes fond of it, and its union 
of courage, muscular strength and unappeasable appetite render it very destruc¬ 
tive to herds and flocks, after it has once learned to attack them. It is fond 


of ants and of honey, 
and never neglects any 
opportunities which 
come in its way. The 
bear is specially 
equipped for his hiber¬ 
nation, which extends 
from November to April. 
In the first place, the 
fat previously accumu¬ 
lated serves for a sup¬ 
port. In the next place, 
the empty stomach and 
intestines contract into 
the smallest compass. 
Finally, the entrance to 
the stomach is blocked 
up by a mass of leaves 
and woody substances, 
called a “ tappen,” with 
which the instinct of 



cinnamon bear (Ursus cinnamon eus). 


the bear leads it to provide itself. As the bear re-soles its feet, every winter, 
it has been suggested that his sucking of his paws is not merely an idle 
habit. The bear not only makes itself a generous, soft bed, but it carpets 
the floor of its den or cave, after the manner of the Elizabethan nobles. It is 
easily domesticated, when it becomes playful, affectionate and readily learns 
tricks, and yet, in its wild state, it is, when attacked, exceedingly savage. 

A brown bear attended mass, although equally unexpected and unwelcome. 
While the devout worshippers were trying to take their thoughts from earth, 
a brown bear made his way into the sanctuary, and after taking observations 
retired, but soon returned with the proceeds of a successful hunt, which he pro¬ 
ceeded to dispose of amidst surroundings which, however strange to him, seemed 
to give him much greater satisfaction than his presence caused the paralyzed 
congregation. Finally the bear withdrew, and after a becoming interval the 
congregation vanished. An instance is related of a brown bear which was used 


THE HIVING WORLD. 


621 



as a guard for the commissary supplies of a regiment. He proved to be entirely 
trustworthy and captured one or two thievish soldiers, but finally having 
injured a mischievous boy who was trying to pilfer sweets, he was treated like 
other benefactors of the human race and put to death, while having his good 
deeds celebrated in song and story. 

A brown bear has been known to engage in a game of romps with chil¬ 
dren too young to feel fear. A mother living on the edge of a forest missed 
her two young children, and going in search of them found one of them 
mounted on the back of a brown bear , while the other was feeding and hauling 
around its enter¬ 
taining playfellow. 

The bear seemed 
surprised at the 
intrusion of the 
children’s mother, 
but as they left 
him for her, he 
seemed to con¬ 
clude that recess 
was over and 
walked away into 
the depths of the 
forest. A brown 
bear was once mis¬ 
taken by a woman 
for her strayed 
donkey. The 
woman approach¬ 
ing, as she sup¬ 
posed in the dark 
her wandering 
servant, began to 
belabor him and 
the bear was too 
much astonished 
to object. Pre¬ 
sently the woman 

discovered her mis- the bear hunt. 

take and started 

off on the double-quick, while the bear retired in the opposite direction. 

The brown bear not unfrequently extinguishes the camp-fires of the traveller 
and hunter. Trusting to the thickness of his wrappings, the bear will roll him¬ 
self into the smouldering fire, scattering the brands, and having thus made 
clear his title, proceed to possess himself of meat not intended for his enjoy¬ 
ment. On one occasion the hunters, few in number, were forced to take to the 
trees and watch the feasting of the uninvited guest. The brown bear has two 
families a year and the two sets of cubs are born not far apart in time. The 
first set is upon the appearance of the second set provided with separate quar¬ 
ters and not permitted to enter the family domicile. 






622 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



The Indian White Bear, the Syrian Bear, the Isabella Bear, or the Ritck 

(Ursus isabellinus , or syriacus) , is generally considered as forming but one species. 
At first a gray-brown in color it becomes entirely white upon reaching 
maturity. Its outer coat consists of curled hair, and on the neck looks like a 
mane. It is called also the ritck and the dubb. It is notable for the gentle¬ 
ness of its disposition, and because it is the bear mentioned in the Bible. 

The American Black Bear ( Ursus omericanus ) has offered such induce¬ 
ments through its abundant fur and excellent flesh, that the hunters have greatly 
diminished its numbers. In the days when slick hair was an essential feature 
of the toilet, bear’s grease was in great demand, but such requirements as still 
exist are easily met by improvements in the manufacture of hams and pork. 
Though naturally shy the black bear can be dangerous, so he affords ample 

temptation to the adventu¬ 
rous hunter, and not un- 
frequently comes off victor. 
It fights by striking with 
its front paws, but once 
that it has its enemy in 
its power, it uses its teeth. 
Like the stag, the bear 
fights for its wives, and 
many a fearful contest has 
lacked nothing but a Homer 
to recite its rapid changes 
and tragic close. If in 
good condition the black 
bear hibernates, otherwise 
it keeps up its foraging 
during the winter. It brings 
forth young but once a 
year when it usually has 
a promising family of four 
little gray cubs. 

A black bear on one 
occasion had for some time 
been making free with a 
A BEAR WITH HIS SPOILS. farmer’s sheep. Keeping 

on the watch for the bear, 

the farmer and a visiting sportsman caught the marauder one day just as it 
was beginning operations and concluded to defer its death until they had taken 
a short lesson in natural history. The bear entered the pasture and finally 
succeeded in separating a lamb from the flock. It next proceeded to head it off 
whenever it endeavored to join its companions. Having finally satisfied the 
lamb that it was powerless, it proceeded quietly, but steadily, to drive it to the 
corner of the fence which abutted on the woods. Here a new difficulty seemed 
to present itself as the lamb could not pass the fence, so the bear picked it up 
tenderly, pitched it over the fence and then himself climbed over. It now 
proceeded to drive before it the submissive lamb, and after a while sat down 
and played with it. This performance was repeated several times until at last 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


the lamb manifesting some weak spirit of revolt was torn to pieces by the bear, 
when the hunters, having seen the end of the play, now proceeded to shoot the 
marauder, and to reclaim their rights of property in the lamb. 



The famous Grizzly Bear (Ursus horribilis , or ferox ,) is always ready to 
act on the offensive, and as it seems to suffer no great inconvenience from 



ARCTIC BEAR AND WAERUSSES. 


wounds not in the head or in the heart, discretion is the better part of valor 
for any man who is not bent upon hunting the grizzly. As before the final 
attack, the bear sits a moment on its haunches, the hunter must speak 





THE LIVING WORLD. 


624 

then and there or “ever after hold his peace.” It would appear that while yet 
young, the grizzly bear is a climber, but as his avoidupois increases, he finds 
the effort beyond his powers. The name was probably griesly at first, for the 
bear is most frequently of a dull-brown color, although some specimens of gray 
colored grizzlies have been found. The hair of the young bear is soft, as well 
as long and abundant. The animal walks with the roll of a tar, and swings 
its head from side to side like a Chinese manikin. The fore legs are specially 
muscular, and the extraordinarily long feet are armed with the most cruel 
claws, several inches in length and working separately. Its tail is ludicrously 
short, and its head large in proportion. It is really a king among beasts, as 



POEAR BEAR AND CUBS ON ICE FLOE. 


these fear to approach it even when it is dead, and when alive it does not hesitate 
to attack and destroy the buffalo. It is tamable when young, very companionable 
and very amusing, but all this amiability disappears with increased age. Its 
strength is such that it can drag away the carcase of a full-grown buffalo, and 
as has been said, it is so much feared by other animals that not even the wolf 
or the coyote will dare to meddle with game which the grizzly may have slain 
and left, for the time, unguarded. 

The grizzly bear is said to be frightened by the scent of man, and if not 
irritated will usually retire. A baby grizzly was made a pet on shipboard, and 
among its other pranks, it deliberately took possession of the pilot’s bunk and 
refused to surrender it to its owner. It formed quite a friendship with a lame 
















THE LIVING WORLD. 


625 

antelope, and on one occasion when both animals were allowed to go on shore 
protected it when it was attacked by a savage dog. This bear is specially sub¬ 
ject^ to ophthalmia, and has been chloroformed and treated successfully by 
oculists. In one instance the bear was difficult to manage during the first 
operation, but having found that it procured real relief, it voluntarily submitted 
to further treatment. A hunter on our western plains shot a deer and concluded 
to go back to camp and return for the deer later. When he came back he found 
a grizzly bear preparing to carry off his game, and rashly concluded to dispute 
its possession. He succeeded in wounding and irritating the creature, and as it 
charged down upon him, a second shot carried away its snout. The bear never¬ 
theless continued its attack, but after inflicting considerable injury was killed. 
The grizzly bear uses its front paws, not for crushing but for holding, and 
employs its hind paws 
for lacerating the flesh 
of its victim. Con¬ 
trary to popular belief 
the grizz ly when 
young, can “ climb a 
tree,” but as stoutness 
comes with increasing 
age he has to forego 
the pastime. 

The Polar Bear, 

White Bear, or Ma¬ 
rine Bear (Ursus ma¬ 
rinas), has a yellow¬ 
ish-white soft fur, an 
elongated flat head, 
a long neck, long 
legs, large feet whose 
soles are fleeced, and 
whose toes are con¬ 
nected by membranes. 

It visits the land but 
seldom, as it feasts 
itself upon dead 
whales and live 
seals. Its length is from nine to ten feet, and its height about six 
feet. It is sociable with its kind but ferocious towards other animals 
and towards human beings. It moves about in small companies and adds 
to the number of animals which are distinguished by great affection for 
their young. A very pitiful story of a polar bear's dying with its two 
cubs is as follows : As a bear with two cubs came within range, the two cubs 
were shot. The mother, forgetful of everything else, tried to revive them. 
First, she tempted each of them with food; then, with repeated groans, she 
tried to raise them to their feet; next, she walked away a short distance and 
plaintively called upon them to follow; returning, she moved them hither and 
thither, licked their bleeding wounds, and finally, as if realizing the wrong 
done her, rose erect and gave utterance to a terrible roar of agony and rage, 
40 



ESQUIMAUX ATTACKED BY A POLAR BEAR. 
















626 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




when the hunters put an end to her suffering and their own sympathetic 
discomfort. 

Th ft polar bear is active and its senses are unusually delicate. It will per¬ 
ceive at once the vicinity 
of seal or salmon, and is 
very successful as a fish¬ 
erman. It generally cap¬ 
tures the salmon and 
other fish by darting 
upon them, but it is more 
ingenious in its seal fish¬ 
ery. It will mark the 
position of the seal and 
then swim under water 
until by coming to the 
surface it can find itself 
directly beneath the un¬ 
suspecting seal. Its 
great endurance and te¬ 
nacity of life render it 
no mean antagonist of 
man. Its claws are short, 
curved slightly, and very 
north America otter (Lutra vulgaris). strong. The long, sinewy 

neck supports a small 

head, whose crown is distinguished from its muzzle by no frontal depression. 
Its blade feet are long, out of proportion, and its sole is furred with double 
reference to warmth and 
security of its hold 
upon the ice. The polar 
bear , or nennook , often 
becomes an unwilling 
and somewhat startled 
traveller, as the ice-floes 
float away south and 
carry him along. Deep- 
sea fishing is not what 
he set out for, and hence, 
after an enforced absti¬ 
nence his hunger in¬ 
duces him, upon reach¬ 
ing land, to become a 
depredator, and speedily 
to lose his life at the 
hands of the outraged 

farmer. Whether or European otter ( Lutra vulgaris). 

not any but the females 

hibernate is still unknown. It prepares its winter quarters on land, under 
some rock, where it digs a snow cave. The flesh of the polar bear is said 





THE LIVING WORLD. 627 

by Arctic travellers and explorers to be excellent. The female with cubs is 
specially morose and dangerous. 

The polar bear when retreating in a hurry will pick up her less fleet cubs 
and throw them before her. When food is out of reach she will throw things 
into the water, so that by creating an artificial current or wave, the desired 
object may be brought within reach. 

The Ingalubi, or African Bear, is a smaller species which inhabits the 
plains. It does the most unexampled damage to the crops of the farmer, but is 
no game for the true sportsman, although it will always charge when attacked. 
When seeking to escape it will frequently reverse itself and back into an ant- 
hole. When it emerges it comes forth with a somersault, and generally strikes 
the exact spot where 
an unwary hunter 
would be in waiting. 

When speared it has 
frequently succeeded 
in turning upon the 
native hunter and 
ripping up his leg. 

The Sea Otter, 
or Kalen (Enhydris 
lutris ), is found on 
the sea-coasts of the 
Northern Pacific. It 
weighs about sev¬ 
enty-five pounds and 
is much larger than 
the fresh-water otter. 

It is a successful 
fisherman, passing 
its winters on the 
coast and following 
up the rivers as the 
weather grows warm 
and the fish ascend 
to spawn. Its glossy 
fur is generally jet- 
black, but at times some portion of the animal will be white. It is short-tailed 
and bandy-legged, but then this is “good form” among otters. Its fur is held 
in high esteem alike from its warmth, its beauty of coloring, and its scarcity— 
for the family is neither fecund nor numerous. 

The North American Otter [Lutra canadensis ) was formerly abundant in 
New England, but the species is now almost extinct. It is said by Audubon to 
coast in the snow or even on the ground, and to do this apparently for the same 
reason which induces children to slide down hill. 

The European Otter (Lutra vulgaris ) is not simply fond of fish, but so 
fastidious as to select only the best and to eat of these but the choicest por¬ 
tions. It is supple, has a long, broad rudder-like tail, webbed feet, an ability 
to turn quickly, sharp teeth, and two coats of fur, the under one short, thick, 










628 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


compact, and the outer one composed of long hair. Its coloring is brown with 
a slight admixture of gray. It prefers finding a hollow or deserted nest to 
building a structure of its own. It will fight to the bitter end and is an 
adversary respected by dog and man. Once it fastens its teeth in anything it 
will hang on with the tenacity of a bull-terrier. It weighs about twenty 
pounds, is about three feet in length, and in eating holds its food with its fore 
paws, ’its hind feet are like a seal’s, but, though swimming with ease and 
rapidity, it can run swiftly. Its fur is held in special esteem. It is trained to 
catch fish for its master, who will at once take them away. The use of the 
otter as a fisherman is most common in China and India. 

The Cape Ratel, Honey Weasel, or Honey Ratel (. Mellivora capensis , 
Ratelus capensis) ,.is South African in habitat, and goes dressed in the thickest, 
furriest, loosest of skin. It is a 'burrower and manifests quickness only when 
burrowing. It is a persistent honey-hunter, although entirely dependent upon 
nests not built in trees. Its covering is an absolute protection against the 
sting of the bee, as its looseness is against any rough handling on the part of 


other enemies. In captivity 
it is very fond of attracting 
attention, and to secure this 
end will convert itself into 
a regular mountebank. The 
prevailing black color of its 
body is relieved by gray on 
the upper part of the head, 
neck, back and tail, and a 
stripe on each of its sides. 



The Indian Ratel {Mel¬ 


livora indicus , Ratelus irdi- 
cus ,) is regarded by some nat¬ 
uralists as a distinct species, 
and by others as substantially 
identical with the Cape 


European badger ( Meles taxus ). 


Ratel. But its habits are different, as it is so ghoulish in its tastes that ceme¬ 
teries must be protected lest it burrow and disinter the corpses. 

The Badger {Meles vulgaris ), though naturally inoffensive, is so worthy 
an antagonist when forced to close quarters, that “ badger baiting ” formed a 
favorite sport during the times when cruelty seemed to be an essential element 
of enjoyment. It is slow and clumsy in walking, but can out-dig any sexton. 
In burrowing it uses its nose and hind legs for pushing the earth away. Its 
home comprises at least three rooms; a living-room, a larder, and a room for 
refuse. It has a white head with black frame, a grayish-red body, and brown 
chest, belly, legs and feet. It can be domesticated, and is lest stupid than is 
generally supposed. 

The American Badger {Taxidea americana) is quite abundant, aud while 
regarded as a separate species, its characteristics have not as yet been fully 
studied. 

The Teledu, Skunk of Java, Stinking Badger, or Stinkard (Mydans 
meliceps ), roots in the earth on the elevated table-lands. It digs a circular earth- 
cave at the foot of some tree and is very scrupulous about its regularity and 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


629 


finish. It lives in pairs, is nocturnal in its habits, and supports life upon a 
mixed diet of seed, tender roots and insects. If captured before it can use its 
artillery, it is temporarily inoffensive, and as the flesh is not impregnated it 
is used for food. When tamed it seems to lose its natural disposition to ren¬ 
der itself offensive, so that it is probably only when irritated and full of the 
idea of self-defence, that it fills the 
air with an odor whose strength 
and persistence nothing (human at 
least) can withstand. 

The Polecat ( Putorius fcetidus ) 
is more destructive than a weasel, 
for not content with making a re¬ 
past it will destroy every small ani¬ 
mal about it. Its habitat is north¬ 
ern Europe. 

American Mink, Musk Otter, 

Water-polecat, or Vison (. Lutreola 
vison , Putorius vison , or Vison lu- 
treola ), is found in Europe as well 
as in North America. Its fur is 
fine and handsome, but has suf¬ 
fered somewhat in esteem from its 
frequent use as a counterfeit sable. 

It is dark-brown as a rule, but fre¬ 
quently is black on the head and 
white on the jaws. It is a good swimmer and frequents the banks of ponds 
and streams where it can find aquatic animals which may serve as its food. 

The Glutton, or Wolverine ( Gulo luscus), has long been distinguished for 
its capacity as an eater, and for its great ferocity. Many are the stories which 

grew from the fertile imaginations 
of the older naturalists, but most 
of them have been unable to vindi¬ 
cate their claim to consideration. Its 
habitat is North America, Siberia and 
northern Europe. In appearance it 
is not unlike a young bear, brown 
in color, with its muzzle black, and 
spotted white on the lower jaw. 
Where the marten is hunted it robs 
the traps, and where provisions are 
stored it robs the owner. 

The Masked Glutton ( Paguma 
larvata) is Chinese in its habitat, is 
olive in color and takes its name 
from white face markings, which resemble a mask. 

The Wolverine, or Great Weasel ( Carcajou ), will not touch poisoned food, 
fall into a trap or get shot by a spring-gun. It will cut the string of the gun 
and then take the bait. It will steal and hoard up the most worthless articles, 
even sticks and stones. A hunter once upon returning to his hut found that 



AMERICAN WOLVERINE (Gu/o borealis ). 



AMERICAN BADGERS. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



it had been entirely gutted by a wolverine. When surprised it will sit up on 
its haunches and shade its eyes with one hand while looking directly at the 
intruder. 

The Tayra ( Galictis barbara) has its habitat in tropical America, and is 
black, with white on the throat and upper chest. Its little brown eyes are very 
bright and promise the intelligence and alertness which the animal displays. 
It is a burrower, about the size of a cat, and when domesticated, makes a very 
amusing pet. It goes about clucking like a hen with a brood of chickens. 

The Grison, or South American Glutton ( Galictis vittata ), is weasel-like 
and resembles the tayra. 

The Ferret (. Putorius furo , or Mustela furo,) is well known as a successful 
rat-catcher. Tame ferrets will often escape, but with the approach of cold 

weather they 
will return to a 
captivity which 
insures them a 
sufficiency of 
food and com¬ 
fortable quar¬ 
ters. The fer¬ 
ret though read¬ 
ily domesticated 
and very useful 
as the servant 
of man, has a 
very ugly and 
uncertain tem¬ 
per, so that its 
owner must 
always be on 
guard against 
sudden ebulli¬ 
tions of passion 
and of savage 
instincts. The 
ferret when 
glutton, or wolverine. used for hunt¬ 

ing rabbits is 

muzzled, brought into the proper vicinity, released and again muzzled as soon 
as it has struck its quarry. It shows the keenness of animal instinct, and a 
ferret which has been muzzled will never afterwards engage in rat-catching. 

The Weasel ( Putorius vulgaris , or Mustela vulgaris ) though but small 
and slight, is amply able to take care of itself and to worry its enemies. Its 
little body of about eight inches is covered with bright, red fur which becomes 
white on the belly. It seems to be absolutely fearless, and to welcome an 
enemy with the utmost disregard of relative size. A story is told of one which 
was met by a hunter and shot at, whereupon it coolly sat down on its haunches 
and observed him, while apparently deliberating whether or not to make an 
attack. Its persistence in its undertakings, and its ability to squeeze through 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


631 


the smallest crevices, render it so successful a hunter of rats and mice, that 
farmers have learned that the occasional appropriation of a chicken is none too 
large a return for its services. It is somewhat fond of birds, and will excel the 
most active boy in robbing birds’ nests. If it once fastens its teeth in an ani¬ 
mal it will never relax its grasp until one of the two is dead. A weasel and an 
owl contended for the contents of a hen’s nest. At first the owl was the 
quicker in reaching the spot, but at the second attempt was attacked by the 
weasel which, though carried into mid-air, held on to the owl till it was 
killed and dropped to the ground. Although the hare is so much fleeter than 
the weasel , it seems to be paralyzed by the mere sight of its “ fell foe,” and 
hence falls an easy prey. 

A weasel has been known to make an unprovoked attack upon the fetlock 
of a horse, and to hold on 
until it had been killed. On 
one occasion at least weasels 
refused to let a boy pass, for 
gathering together they chased 
him back the way he came. 

A hunter falling asleep under 
a tree was attacked by a band 
of weasels , and escaped simply 
because his thick clothing pro¬ 
tected him while he ran. A 
kite swooped down upon a 
weasel and bore it aloft, but 
it soon discovered its mistake, 
for though it had come to 
prey it remained to be preyed 
upon. A weasel brought a frog 
to church, and disregarding the 
reproving looks of the congre¬ 
gation, turned one of the aisles 
into a refectory. The weasel , 
when domesticated, is full of the most intense and futile curiosity, and takes 
a lively interest in every object, action and proceeding. It is said, although 
not authoritatively, that the weasel seeks quarrels with snakes, and manages 
first to kill and then to eat them. 

The Ermine, or Stoat (. Putorius erminea ), has passed into song and story 
as well as into commerce, because of its furry coat, which, though red in summer, 
becomes white in winter. It is found on both continents, is about three-quar¬ 
ters of a foot in length, and wears a bushy, black-tipped tail. Like the skunk, 
the ermine can teach one to “ learn too late that ” stoats “ deceive.” The stoat 
delights in carnage, and is a great rat-killer. 

The Bridled Weasel (. Putorius frcenatus) belongs to the Pacific slope. 

The Skunk {Mephitis americana ), also called pole cat , is a common 
creature throughout America, and is one of the most destructive thieves with 
which farmers have to contend, stealing, as it does, both eggs and chickens. 
It is rather prettily marked with white and black stripes, has a bushy tail, 
and though small in size it has the power of emitting an odor so penetrating 
that no amount of washing or disinfecting can subdue it. 



TIBETH AND TAYRA. 





THE LIVING WORLD. 


A very strange but well-authenticated story is 
ing up a stage full of passengers. As the stage 


told about a skunk's hold- 
approached it deliberately 
opened its batteries, and "so astonished the travellers that in their consternation 

they awaited the punishment which 
his impish majesty inflicted upon 
them. Even so distinguished a na¬ 
turalist as Audubon made his ac¬ 
quaintance with the skunk by per¬ 
sonal experiment. 

The Martens ( Mustela ) are 
abundant in the more northern por¬ 
tions of both hemispheres. Their 
fur robes consist of long, soft hair, 
whose color is uniform, and when 
brought into the marts of mankind 
are called sables—the fur which has 
become so famous through the pens 
of clever writers. 

The Pennant Marten, Black 
Fox, or Black Cat (.Mustela pen- 
nanti ), is about four feet in length, 
of which more than a quarter is 
claimed by the tail. In spite of its 
stoutness it is an agile climber, and 
nests high up in some tree, where 
it can find a hole in which to house 
its young—generally twins, but 
sometimes four in number. Mice and frogs are its chief articles of diet, but it 
will on occasion feed upon other species of its own family . 

The American Sable, or Pine Marten (Mustela americana ), is about as 
large as a cat, but not so tall, as 
it indulges in great economy in 
the matter of legs. Like the gal¬ 
lants who wore vest over vest, or 
the circus-rider who divests him¬ 
self of garment after garment, the 
American sable wears a triple gar¬ 
ment, of which the outermost cov¬ 
ering consists of long, glossy hair; 
the innermost, of short, soft wool; 
the middle one, of hair, short and 
kinky, but of greater length than 
that of the covering below, and of 

shorter than that of the covering PIllE MARTBK . 

above. Like the cuckoo, it quite 

frequently takes possession of nests belonging to other animals, such as the 
squirrel, when to prevent any further question of rightful ownership it converts 
the squirrel into a repast. It will, at times, build its nest underground or use 
the natural little caves made by the rocks. It is not confined to pine forests, 


ERMINE AND SABLE MARTEN. 






THE LIVING WORLD. 


633 




nor does it show any preference for these, so that its name probably arose from 
the accident of its having first been found there ; it seems to require only the 
neighborhood of water. It does no damage to the farmer, though where meat is 
stored in pits it is likely to prove a trespasser. 

The Sable of Asia (. Mustela zibellina ) furnishes the most valuable sable— 
that fur among furs. The principal hunting ground is Siberia, and involves 

great hardship, though 
this counts for nothing 
where human life is so 
cheap, and the caprices 
of the wealthy and pow¬ 
erful are so absolute. 
The animals are caught 
by trapping, and as it 
requires more than one 
skin to make a single 
muff, the costliness and 
regal magnificence of 

cloaks made of this material may well be conceived. 

The European Pine Marten, or Sweet Marten (. Mustela 
martes ), loves to live in the pine forests. Its body is about 
a foot and a half in length, and is set off by a long, bushy tail. Its brown 
coat is quite handsome, but the animal is not numerous enough to tempt the 
cupidity of man. Its habitat is in the northern portion of each continent. 

The Beech Marten, White-throated Marten, or Stone Marten ( Mustela 
foina ), is probably a distinct spe¬ 
cies, although regarded by some 
as merely a variety of the pine 
marten. It is white-throated and 
white-breasted, and is given to 
hanging about farm-yards and 
•dwellings as a simple means of 
gratifying its appetite for birds, 

•eggs and poultry. 


SABEE AND MARTEN IN THEIR WINTER ROBES. 


CARNIVORA.—DOGS, FOXES. 


The Otocyon, or Big-eared 

Fox {Otocyon lalandii ), is gray, 
with black for the color of its legs 
and its tail. Its habitat is South 
Africa, where its erect furred ears, 
so large as to exceed its head in 
size, make it a noticeable creature. 

The Coast Fox, or Short- pennant marten. 

tailed Fox ( Vulpes littoralis) , is 

small in size, and colored black, changing to cinnamon-brown on the fore-legs 
and sides of the neck. 

The Gray Fox ( Vulpes, or urocyon cinereo-argentatus ,) is quite common m 
the United States. 



634 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


The Caama, or Asse ( Vulpes caama or zaarensis ), is hunted in South 
Africa for its skin. It, like the fennec, is extravagantly fond of eggs, which 
it opens by pushing them before it until they strike against a stone or some 
other hard substance. It has been driven northward by persistent hunting, 



silver fox. fennecs ( Vulpes zerda). 



and while very scarce around the Cape, is in no immediate danger of becoming 
extinct. 

The Fennec ( Vulpes zerda , or Megatolis fennec ) is a graceful little African crea¬ 
ture, whose cream-colored or fawn-colored body is set off by a bushy tail, whose 
baseand tip are black. Its slender body, sharp nose and large, pointed ears give 
it a resemblance to the fox, while its blue eyes peeping forth from its long full- 

bearded face, result in a very cunning appear¬ 
ance. It is valued as a pet because of its grace, 
its timidity, and its mere semblance of a bark; 
but it is held in no less esteem since it fur¬ 
nishes one of the most desirable of furs. It 
is found from the Cape of Good Hope as far 
north as Tunis. It is specially fond of ostrich 
eggs, whose shells it breaks by rolling them 
against the rocks. It can climb trees, but 
lives in shallow burrows, which it makes in the 
sand. The excellence of its fur, and the small 
size of its robe render a garment of fennec 
skin rare, costly and desirable. 

The Corsac (Vulpes corsac) is celebrated 
as having been the favorite pet of the courtiers 
of Charles IX. of France. It belongs to Cen¬ 
tral Asia, and is no larger than a house-cat. 
The Bengal Dog ( Vulpes bengalensis) is a 
nearly related species, as is also the American Swift Fox (Vulpes velox). The 
African Fox (Vulpes niloticus) , in the north, and (Vulpes adustci) in the south, will 
be found mentioned in books of travel. The Cross Fox (Vulpes fulvus or 
decussatus) is so-called because of a dark stripe on its shoulders. It is com¬ 
mon in so well-settled a State as New York. 





THE LIVING WORLD. 


635 



Silver Fox, or Black Fox ( Vulpes argentatus ), is another variety of 
the red fox ( Vulpes fulvus). The Silver Fox, of the Western States, is the 
American Swift Fox. The Long-tailed Fox, Large Red Fox, or Prairie Fox, 
(Vulpes macrourus, or Utah), is the largest of the fox family, being nearly three 
feet m length. It has a sharp muzzle, long-pointed ears, and its haunts are on 
the western plains of the United States. 

The Blue Arctic Fox, Terrienniak, or Perzi ( Vulpes lagopus ), becomes 
entirely white m the winter season, when its silken fur- is an object of interest 
to man. Its habitat is the North Polar region, and as in passing from its sum¬ 
mer color of blue to its winter mantle of white, it furnishes various other shades • 
it is called also 
the stone fox , 
the pied fox , 
the white fox , 
and the sooty 
fox. It is 
stated that it 
has the power 
of mimicry, and 
that it uses it 


m securing 
birds for food. 

It lives in small 
towns of twenty 
or thirty in¬ 
habitants, and 
in spite of its 
appearance of 
alertness and 
intelligence is 
very easily 
trapped or 
shot. 

The Euro- 
p e a n Fox 

(Vulpes vulga¬ 
ris) is the hero of fox-hunting stories, and from his cunning and endurance 
he is well calculated to sustain the role. This is the fox of the Romans, the 
celebrated Reynard of fable and story, and the one whose brush has so long 
been the coveted prize of the British hunter. Its range is the whole of Europe, 
Asia Minor and eastward to Thibet. An English fox-hunt is a spirited affair, 
and throws into excitement the whole community. The curvetting of the 
horses, the struggling of the hounds in their leashes, the broken country over 
which the hunters must ride, the cunning of the fox itself, and the glory of 
triumphing over one’s fellows, all unite to fan the excitement into a blaze, and 
to cause the successful hunter to believe that he is as great a conqueror as 
the celebrated military men of yore, but since fox-hunting has been intro¬ 
duced at the East, and because fox-hunting has always been a well-known 
sport in the South, we refer our readers to the sporting papers. 


BI.UK arctic fox. 





636 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


The fox fully deserves its reputation for cunning. Knowing that it is 
endangered by the strong scent which is one of the crosses which it has to bear, 
it makes every effort to use “ art as nature to advantage dressed.” It will 
eagerly avail itself of the presence of any perfumed shrub; it will often, when 
pursued, usurp the burrows of another fox so that bp temporary occupancy it 
may divert the pursuit and share its undesired adventures with another of its 

kind; it will take to the water to destroy its 
trail; it will leap high in air and over wide 
distances that it may effect the same end. So, 
too, when hunting hares and rabbits, whose fleet¬ 
ness exceeds its own, it will display a cleverness 
which lends reasonableness to the various fables 
in which the fox has played the hero. On one 
occasion an observing hunter gave himself up 
to watching the proceedings of a fox. Reynard 
first came down and reconnoitered a field in which 
a great many hares were feeding. He then care¬ 
fully inspected the possible means of exit, and 
finally selected one hole under the fence as a 
good location for a hunter. He next burrowed 
to a slight depth, and patiently anticipated the 
time when the unsuspicious hares having feasted, 
should return to their warren for rest. After about an hour the hares began 
to straggle through the other openings, but without any effect upon Reynard 
except that of making his eyes sparkle and his 
tail quiver. Finally two hares came through the 
opening which Reynard was guarding, and allow¬ 
ing the first one to pass, he sprang upon the 
second and was bearing it away in triumph when 
the unseen hunter brought its life to a close, 
and added to his increased knowledge of natural 
history, a fox and hare both in prime condition. 

A tame fox found a curious way of turning its 
curse of muskiness into a blessing in disguise. 

Finding by experiment that its presence was espe¬ 
cially offensive to the cats, it would await the 
time when they received their supplies of milk, 
and then intrude upon their company until, when 
they withdrew in disgust, it would devote itself to 
enjoying the repast provided for his exclusive 
neighbors. Learning wisdom from experience, it 
began to brush against the milkmaid as she re¬ 
turned from the milking, and having thoroughly 
impregnated the milk, would succeed to its possession. On more than 

one occasion, when closely pursued, a fox has been known to vanish as if 
into thin air. One such clever strategist used always to disappear over a 
most precipitous cliff, and it was not until after many a fruitless pursuit 
that a hunter-spy discovered that the fox had found a shelving rock just below 
the top of the cliff, and a passage leading to the top of the ground which 




AMERICAN EOX. 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


637 


enabled him to circumvent hound and hunter, while these were gazing stupidly 
into the darkness of the chasm. Another astute fox used to be hunted fre¬ 
quently and always vanished at one corner of the field. His success became a 
by-word and a reproach to every fox-hunter in the district, but no effort of 
theirs seemed able to discover the means by which the fox “ dematerialized” 
itself. In the end one of the hunters who had sacrificed his sport to play the 
spy, was after innumerable failures fully rewarded upon reaching the corner of 
the field. Reynard did not, as has been supposed, run along the topmost rail of 
the fence, but clambering up on it leaped many feet into the hollow of a tree, 



A FOX FAMILY. 


so distant that any suggestion of its affording a means of escape had been finally 
dismissed. Unfortunately what is sport for the hunter is death for the fox , so 
that the much less astute men proceeded to kill Reynard despite his cleverness. 
The fox displays the greatest cunning in outwitting those who would trap 
him, burrowing below the trap and thus springing it before he trifles with the 
bait. Unfortunately for the fox , the hunters have learned to set their traps 
upside down, so that as a dead fox never returns it will be some time before the 
foxes learn of the scheme arranged for their capture. In dealing with spring- 
guns the fox has exhibited equal fertility of resources, for it will either burrow 
at right angles to the bait, or gnaw the cord near the trigger, and then safely 
feast upon the bait. 






6 3 8 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




The fox , like some other animals, has been known to fish successfully, 
using his tail as bait and line for the greedy, obstinate and tenacious crabs. 
Foxes generally go about in pairs and avail themselves of the benefit to be derived 
from co-operative effort. Such was the case when two gullies down the side of a 
precipitous and inaccessible hill were used by the rabbits and hares as a path¬ 
way to the valley below. Two foxes stationed themselves one at the end of one 
of the gullies and the other at some distance above. The former chased the 
rabbits up the gully and the latter sprang from its concealment and captured 

one of them. On another occasion 
the hunting fox allowed its victim to 
escape, whereupon the other fox fell 
upon its awkward assistant and pun¬ 
ished it soundly. The foxes are very 
considerate of their young, but the lat¬ 
ter are very ungrateful and, like spoiled 
children, forget past benefits in present 
desires. On one occasion a naturalist 
undertook to satisfy himself in regard 
to stories about the family discords 
of the fox. Concealing himself near 
its retreat, he was finally rewarded 
by seeing the fox appear with a goose 
which it had stolen, and lay it down 
on the ground while it went to call 
The man managed to secure the goose, and when the 


JACKAL. 


its children to dinner, 
happy family ap¬ 
peared, the mother 
hunted high and low 
for its marketing, 
and failing to find 
it, was set upon by 
her cubs and sub¬ 
mitted to being torn 
to pieces; a good 
story, but altogether 
improbable. 

The Indian 
Jackal (Cams au¬ 
reus) is an animal 
whose nightly howl¬ 
ing is as trouble¬ 
some as his vora¬ 
cious appetite and 
depredations upon 

the flocks and poultry. It quite frequently dances attendance upon the lion and 
possesses itself of the remains of the lion’s feasts. Still its patient cunning 
quite as often induces the jackal to hunt on its own account, in the vicinity of 
farms, and it most commonly gets its share of the farm produce. It also hunts 
after the tiger, relying upon getting possession of all that the tiger cannot 


WOLF AND YOUNG. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


639 



eat. It has been known, when chased by hunting-dogs, to summon its fellows 
to its aid and to disable or kill the dogs. An example of the jackal's cunning 
is furnished by the account of one which, when 
hotly pursued, selected as its place of concealment, 
not the jungle, but the most thickly settled por¬ 
tion of a village. 

The Black-backed Jackal, Duwa, or Cape 
Jackal (Vulpes mesomelas ), is mottled in white 
and black, and renders night hideous by its ear- 
splitting cries. It shares the taste of the natives 
for the fat-tailed sheep, but instead of killing the 
sheep, it bites off its tail. It is very cunning, 
and its devices might serve as a study for those 
who have frequent occasion to extricate them¬ 
selves from difficulties. 

The jackal is harmless, and indeed it is often 
serviceable to the hunter, as a trustworthy indica¬ 
tion of the vicinity of the lion. coyote. 

Jackals have been known to surround a hare 
•concealed in the crevices of a rock, and then to depute some of their number to 

drive it out into the 
ambuscade. After 
having killed it and 
hidden it in the 
bushes, the jackals 
come forth to see 
whether any more 
powerful animal is 
likely to despoil 
them, and during 
this reconnoitering 
they swagger around 
with an assumed 
air of indifference. 
If an enemy is in 
sight, they have 
been known to pick 
up cocoanuts or any 
other convenient 
object and to pre¬ 
tend to carry them 
away as if they 
were the special ob¬ 
ject of their quest. 
If, however, the 
coast is clear, the 

OR*Y wour. J ack “ ls r f UTn t0 J he 

bush and enjoy their 

feast. Packs of jackals have in India been known to station themselves along 









THE LIVING WORLD. 


640 


the edge of a jungle skirting a pond, and when a deer had rendered itself 
heavy by large draughts of watery to head it off at each new attempt to enter the 
jungle, and to keep it moving about the pond until it dropped through sheer 


exhaustion. 


CARNIVORA.—WOLVES. 


The Maikong (Cams cancrivorus) is a crab-eating fox-wolf, found in 
Guiana, where it runs in small packs. . _ , . _ , 

The Guara (Cams jubatus), or Hyena Fox-wolf, is found m South 
America. It is a yellowish-red, is solitary, about five feet long, wears a black and 
red mane, a white spot under the head, and is very fierce. It is called the 

aguara ailpea. 

The Wolf (Cams lupus ) 
is known in all countries 
and has earned a reputation 
which would be better if cue 
stopped to reflect that he 
lives the life for which he 
was created. 

The Indian Wolf (Cauls 
pallipes) resembles the jackal. 
The Wolf of the Pyrenees 
is black. The French Wolf 
is brown. The Russian 
Wolf wears whiskers on 
throat and cheek, and the 
Italian Wolf is red. 

The Tanate (Cam's pro- 
cyonoides) belongs to China 
and Japan, and is often 
called the raccoon dog. 

The Gray American 
Wolf ( Cams occldentalls) re¬ 
sembles the European wolf, 
although its size is less. It 
varies in coloring and form 
in different parts of the coun¬ 
try, and is valuable as illus¬ 
trating this doctrine of the creation of varieties from species (not classes 
from orders). 

The Coyote, or Prairie Wolf, or Cajote (Cams latrans ), is a familiar 
object on the plains of western North America, and his howl, sufficiently 
blood-curdling in itself, is always taken up without break by at least two or 
three others in succession. Like the rest of the wolf family he finds his 
hunger unappeasable by food, and hence he is always in quest of ^ more, like 
Oliver Twist at Do-the-Boys Hall. His sneaking persistency and his guardian 
care over the hunter and his supplies, render him an object of detestation so 
intense as to prevent the recognition of his excellences, when viewed as 
abstract qualities. 

The wolf displays the greatest suspicion of traps and spring-guns, and is 














THE LIVING WORLD. 


641 




very clever in dealing with such interruptions to his enjoyments. He will 
approach the gun back of the barrel, and, having gnawed the cord enjoy the 
bait which he has converted into a harmless provision for a meal. So, too, he 
will seize the set lines of the fishermen, drag them away until the fish has 
been landed, and then, returning to the other end of the line, enjoy at his 
leisure the returns for his cleverness. 

Two wolves when hunting once displayed very great cleverness. One of 
them concealed 
itself in a ditch 
while the other 
made a wide cir¬ 
cuit, and getting 
behind a herd of 
antelopes drove 
them towards the 
ditch where one of 
them fell a victim 
to its unsuspected 
foe. Darwin 
authenticates the 
statement that 
wolves , like men, 
will station a 
guard to the lee¬ 
ward Of a herd Of HYENA HOUNDS PURSUING A BEISA. 

deer, while the rest 

of the pack goes to the windward and drives the herd into the jaws of death. 

The buffalo is at times 
pursued by a pack of wolves, 
which will finally manage to 
hamstring him. On the west¬ 
ern plains a hunter found a 
tired buffalo watched by two 
wolves, who, attacking him only 
when he lay down, or else 
merely feigning attack, were 
about to see him fall a victim.. 
It is said that wolves when 
found in a trap will unresist- 
african wii.d dog. ingly submit to any treatment, 

and on one occasion when a 
woman fell into a pit, she found that a similar fate had happened to a wolf, and 
that it was as harmless as a fawning cur. That the wolf should always be hungry 
is not a matter of his own choice, and his tireless persisting is an admirable 
quality, although to us it may seem like persistence in ill doing. The thrill¬ 
ing adventures with wolves have been many, but none, perhaps, has surpassed 
in interest that of the woman who escaped by sacrificing her children, one at 
a time, and who, upon arrival at the village, was punished for murder, 
though it is difficult to understand why, since she could not save them. 


4 ' 



64 ? 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



JACKALS ROBBING A GRAVE. 


The Wild Dog, Hyena Dog, Painted Hyena, or Wilde Hund 

(Lycaon venaticus, or pictus ), is very abundant in southern Africa, and is gener¬ 
ally regarded as the bridge 
between the hyenas and the 
dogs. It is not inclined to 
attack man but prefers to 
hunt its own game or to 
devour carcases of animals 
killed by others. It is 
smaller in stature than the 
hyena, is thin, has bristling 
hair of red or brown (chang¬ 
ing in spots to white or 
black, and to gray upon the 
bushy tail), has large, 
straight, wliite-tufted ears, 
broad, short muzzle and fang¬ 
like teeth. It is nocturnal, 
hunts in large packs, which 
give no sound while pursu¬ 
ing their prey, and is alto¬ 
gether a gruesome creature. 
It has been domesticated, 
when it exhibited the most 
utter antipathy to dogs born in captivity. It sometimes happens that a pack of 
wild dogs and one of hyenas will meet and quarrel over the possession of a carcase. 

The wild dog sometimes finds the wolves enjoying a feast upon the prey 
they have run down, or it may be 
upon a carcase which the wolves 
have discovered. Then there will 
ensue the most bitter quarrelling 
and the most animated fighting, 
which will terminate only when the 
prey has been reduced to fieshless 
bones and the combatants have ex¬ 
hausted their strength. 

The wild dog runs like hounds 
in a pack, but unlike the hound 
gives no audible expression to its 
emotions. It has a great variety of 
names, such as the warabo , the durwa, 
the wilde hund , the painted dog , the 
painted hyena, and the hunting-dog 
hyena. 

A hunter had a somewhat start¬ 
ling experience from suddenly hyena hound ( Lycaon pictus). 

stumbling into the midst of a sleep¬ 
ing pack, which. rose about him like spectres or hobgobblins. In order to 
induce them to withdraw, and thus render escape possible for himself, he shot 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


643 




seemingly eminent, and upon tills hint the pack sought 


two of the most 
other lodgings. 

The skin of the 
wild dog is 
fonnd to be 
superior to all 
other material 
for gun-covers, 

50 that since 
the invasion of 
Africa by Cau¬ 
casian hunters, 
with their arm¬ 
ament of small 
artillery, the 
wild dog has a 
new danger to 
fear. 

The War- 
ragal,or Dingo 

(Cams .dingo), 
is Australian 
and very harm¬ 
ful to those en¬ 
gaged in sheep¬ 
raising. Form¬ 
ing themselves 
into packs they 
seem to district 

the country, and each pack to strictly confine itself to its own allotment. It is 
brownish-red' or reddish-brown, sharp-muzzled, has a bushy tail, small, crafty- 

looking eyes and short pointed ears 
rising straight from its head. It is 
tenacious, of life and a perfect 
Spartan in the endurance of pain. 
It relies upon cunning rather than 
upon strength, but if forced to fight 
it becomes a very ugly adversary. 
When domesticated it retains its un¬ 
pleasant savage habits, and is liable 
at any moment to attack its owner. 

The Anaponda Greyhound is 
colored black, tawny or white; some¬ 
times it resembles the deer hound 
and at other times the greyhound. 
Its ears are erect, its coat short and 
* dingo. smooth, its speed unusually great, 

and it runs entirely by sight. The 
pack of hunting-hounds. When thus 


Australian dingo ( Canis dingo). 


'wild dogs are sometimes trained as 











644 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



domesticated the wild dog exhibits the most unconquerable aversion to dogs born 
in captivity. Their method of running down their prey may be illustrated by 

the example of wild dogs 
hunting the buffalo. 
The dogs pursued the 
buffalo as a pack, and 
whenever he charged 
discreetly withdrew. In 
order to save their own 
strength, while exhaust¬ 
ing that of the buffalo, 
the dogs would keep up 
their long, wolf-like run, 
and from time to time 
depute two of their num¬ 
ber to run ahead of the 
pack and increase the 
speed of the buffalo, and 
when these forerunners 
became exhausted they 
would drop back while 
others took their place. 
Finally the buffalo sank 
from exhaustion and the 
pack of dogs fell upon 
him and tore him to 
pieces. The wild dog 
of Australia, or dingo, 
frequently hunts the 
kangaroo in a similar 
manner. 

HYENA HOUNDS BAYING A LEOPARD. The J ndian Dhole 



or Kohlsun (Cyon dukhuensis ), is confined to a limited district of British India. 
It lives in the jungle, is very shy, and but rarely seen. It hunts success¬ 
fully every animal 
but the elephant, the 
rhinoceros and the 
leopard — the last 
being secure be¬ 
cause the dhole can 
not climb. It is of 
a dark-mahogany 
color, about the size 
of a greyhound, 
gregarious, and 
harmless to man 
unless attacked. > WILD DOG [Icticyon ™ naticus )- 

The Buansuah, or Wild Dog of Nepaul (Cyon pnmigenms , or prinuzvus ), 
resembles the Indian dhole, except for the fact that it bays as it chases its. 







THE LIVING WORLD. 


645 

prey. It is often domesticated and is found specially useful in hunting the 
wild boar. 

The Cape Hyena, or Brown Hyena (. Hycena brunni , or brunnea ), is 
named from its habitat or from the color of its hair, which is long, running 
backward from the head. Around 
the cheeks and chin the hair is white 
or gray, producing the effect of very 
long side-whiskers. 

The Spotted Hyena, or Tiger- 
wolf ( Crocuta maculata) , is larger and 
more dangerous. It utters a cry which 
has given it the name of the laughing 
hyena , and when engaged in uttering 
this crazy sound it dances about and 
contorts itself. It has been trapped 
so often that a piece of rope causes 
paroxysms of fear. Some of these 
creatures have learned how to steal 
small children, which they prefer to 
other animal food. Its habitat is 
South Africa. Its taste for human 

flesh is supposed to have been culti¬ 
vated by the heathen custom of 
exposing to beasts of prey the dead bodies of relatives. The hyena adds to 
its other disabilities as a pet a most nauseating odor. It is stated upon reason¬ 
able authority that the lion will chastise the hyena by biting off one or 
more of its legs. 

The Striped Hyena ( Hycena stri¬ 
ata) is a striped creature whose size and 
ferocity make him a dreaded neighbor 
by the inhabitants of the Cape of Good 
Hope. The hyena family is not in any 
wise attractive, and possibly we shall 
look for no greater cause for our repul¬ 
sion than to the picture of striped hyenas 
snarling and quarrelling over a deserted 
camel. In color it is a grayish-brown 
striped with black. Like the rest of 
its family it is very cowardly, but this 
does not prevent its paying nightly visits 
to the village cemeteries and unearthing 
the bodies for a ghoulish feast. 

The spotted hyena tears off the ud- 

SPOTTED HYENA {H. CrOCutd). ^ q{ ^ CQW which ^ attackS) and , 

secure of having inflicted a mortal wound, postpones till the close of the day’s 
hunting any feasting upon the rest of the animal. Architecture in southern 
Africa is yet in a somewhat primitive condition, and no one knows it better 
than the spotted hyena. Hence it not unfrequently occurs that he comes 
like a perverted Santa Claus through the roof, not to fill the children’s stock- 






646 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


ings, but to empty them of their possible owners. The carrying off of 
young children is so frequent as to excite no more surprise than a bar-room 
fight on the frontiers, and when the hyena does not succeed in carrying off the 
child it will frequently take such liberal bites of its flesh that it might as well 
have had the remainder. On one occasion when a spotted hyena had secured 
an infant and escaped from the village, it for some reason dropped it unharmed 
before retreating in the presence of some unexplained terror. It is a vampire, 
which, though not sucking the blood, tears to pieces and mangles the faces of 
any native who can be approached by stealth. The hyena never attacks unless 
its prey is running away—except, of course, in such raids as have been 
described—and when intending to prey upon the cattle of the ranchmen or 
traveller, seeks first to induce them to run away. Livingstone, in his “ Zam¬ 
bezi,” tells of how he managed 
to induce a hyena to commit 
suicide. He hung a piece of 
meat just high enough up on 
a tree to make the hyena jump 
from the ground in order to 
reach the bait. He then planted 
a short spear in the ground, 
and the scheme working suc¬ 
cessfully the hyena impaled 
himself. 

The Asiatic Civet, or 
Zibeth {Viverra zibet ha), is 
whiter than the African civet 
and its tail is dark-ringed. 
It is very gentle when do¬ 
mesticated and quietly takes 
a place in the household. 

The Tangalung ( Viverra 
tangalunga ) has blacker mark¬ 
ings, and along the back is 
distinctly black. It has a short 
muzzle and finds its habitat 
in Sumatra. 

The Malayan Weasel, 
or Rasse ( Viverra malacensis ), is grayish-brown, with eight parallel lines of 
dark spots. It furnishes the favorite and most common perfume of Java. 

The Linsang, Sawtooth or Delundung (. Prinodon gracilis ), is found in 
Malabar and Java, is beautiful in coloring and so shapely as to have been 

named the graceful. It secretes no civet and has no pouches. Its ground- 

color is gray, but it carries four saddles of brown. From the flanks to the 
cheeks extend two dark bands. 

The African Civet ( Viverra civetta) is an object of desire on account of the 
civet contained in its pouch. It is Abyssinian in habitat, weasel-like in nature 
and black and white in coloring. Its lips and eyes are fringed with white and the 

ears are tipped with the same color. Its mane extends from the head to the 

end of its can and tail be erected at pleasure. Its greatest value is as a 



STRIPED HYENAS OF SAHARA. 
















THE LIVING WORLD. 


647 




producer of civet which at certain seasons is scraped from its double, abdominal 
pouch. 

The Common, or Blotched Genet ( Genetta vulgaris ), is found in the 
greatest abundance in South Africa, although not unknown in central Europe. 
Dark patches are scattered over a yellowish-gray coat and its tail is banded 
in black and white. It is a climber, and its claws are retractile. 

The Senegal 
Genet, or Pale 
Genet ( Genetta sen- 
egalensis ), is whiter 
and is striped broad¬ 
ly. It is domesti¬ 
cated and used like 
the common cat. 

The Banded 
Mungous (Mungos 
fasciatus ) belongs in 
Java. It is of the 
size of a large rat 
and the front part of 
its body is somewhat 
rat-like. It is very 
bad-tempered even African civet ( Viverra civetla ). 

with its own kind, 

but being an active climber is frequently caged as a pet. It is blackish in 
color, with lines across the back. It keeps up a constant chattering, somewhat 
like a crow. 

The Mungous of Java, or Javanese Ichneumon ( Herpestes javanicus) , is 
sometimes called the garangan. The chestnut, which is its predominant color, 
passes into fawn on the head and the under parts of the body. It can inflate 

its body by inhalation, and is said 
to do this so as to induce snakes 
to coil about its body, whereupon 
it collapses, escapes and kills the 
snake.. 

The Suricateor Zenick ( Suri - 
cata tetradactyla , or Rhyzcena tetra- 
dactyla ), is frugivorous as well as 
carnivorous. It is about a foot 
long, gray brown shot with yellow, 
and barred above with darker brown. 
blotched GENET {Viverragenetta). It is a burrower, for which its long, 

strong claws fit it admirably. It 
is readily domesticated, when it proves itself to be alike intelligent and useful. 

The Mampalon (Cynogale bennettii) has its habitat in Borneo. It has a 
long nose or snout, which is plentifully furnished with long mustaches. It lives 
in the vicinity of streams, and in habits does not differ from other ichneumons. 

The Nandine, or Double-spotted Ichneumon, is dark-brown, and its tail 
is ringed with black. 



648 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




The Binturong ( Arctitis binturong ) has long, dull, coarse hair, except upon 
the head and around the ears, where it changes to gray. It carries a long, 
thick, bushy tail, and altogether is one of the largest species of the ichneumon. 
Its tail is prehensile, and is used in climbing. It is about two feet and a half 
long, and is irritable, dull, and rather sluggish. 

The Crab-eating Ichneumon, or Urva {Herpestes cancrivorus), has narrow 

bands of white from its mouth along 
its cheeks to the base of the neck. 

The Common Ichneumon, 
or Pharaoh’s Rat (. Herpestes ich¬ 
neumon ), is very useful in the land 
of Isis and Osiris, where rats and 
mice, serpents and crocodiles dis¬ 
port themselves; large numbers of 
which it destroys, including the 
most poisonous species of snakes. 
It was domesticated among the 
I.UWACK, OR MALABAR civet-cat. Egyptians, and frequently appears 

in their symbolic art. It is a 
foot and three-quarters in length, with a tail a foot and a half long. Like 
the civet it has a pouch, in which a liquid is secreted, but the use of this, 
either to the animal or to mankind, is yet to be ascertained. It is a grizzled- 
brown in color and in appearance suggests the ferret. 

The Indian Moongus, or Indian Ichneumon ( Herpestes griseus ), has hair 
of a mixed gray and black, is smaller than the common ichneumon, and is 
frequently enrolled as a member 
of the household. 

The Nyula is marked accord¬ 
ing to a basket pattern, which is 
never lost, however delicate the 
markings become. It frequents 
the densest thickets in the African 
fever districts, and is very wary, 
graceful and handsome. 

The Ruddy Ichneumon, 

Pencilled Ichneumon, or Meer- 
kat ( Cenictis penicillata , or levail- 
lantii ), is tawny, with brown 
paws. Its habitat is South Africa. 

The Kusimanse, or Man- 
gue is a Western African plan¬ 
tigrade. It is chocolate-colored, 
but if the fur is disturbed it 
shows as a whitish-yellow. Its 
nose resembles a short proboscis. 

The Malabar Civet-cat, Coffee Rat, or Luwack ( Parodoxurus iypus, or 
hemaphroditus) , is yellowish-black, but from the nature of its hair is somewhat 
chameleon-hued. . Its sides have rows of spots, and its shoulders bear spots 
irregularly. It is plantigrade, and has a tail which, though not used as pre- 










THE LIVING WORLD. 


649 

tensile, is frequently curled up into a coil. In captivity, at least, its habits 
are slothful, although it is qualified for the most rapid and daring feats of 
climbing. 

The Java Linsang, or Musang (. Paradoxurus fasciatus ), though useful in 
destroying vermin, is unfortunately fond of the coffee plant, and has been 
known to descend to the robbing of poultry yards. 

The Hemigale, or Half-weasel ( Hemigalea hardwickii), is grayish-brown, 
relieved by six or seven saddles of dark-brown. Its nose is black, and a black 
line extends from it, on each side of the face to the ear, and also encircles the 
eyes. 

The Foussa ( Cryptoprocta ferox ) has Madagascar for its habitat. It is 
light-brown, inclining to red in its color, has large, round ears and stout claws. 
It looks gentle and inoffensive, but in this case at least appearances are deceitful, 
for it is alike ferocious and dangerous. Its whole life is but a thirst for blood. 

CARNIVORA.—LIONS, TIGERS, ETC. 

The Lion [Felis led) has suffered alike from undue exaltation as the king of 
beasts, and from the ebb that always follows the tidal wave. It would seem 
to depend very much upon the temperament and the mood of the individual lion 
whether he is to be regarded as worthy of sovereignty, or whether, as frequently 
happens in monarchies, he is simply the lineal successor of more worthy 
ancestors. It will be seen from the illustrative anecdotes in The Living World, 
that travellers have had various experiences, so that there is sufficient authority 
for our preserving the traditions of our youth, or for our rising superior to these, 
and regarding them as the merest nursery tales. 

The South African Lion [Leo capensis ) will naturally receive the most 
attention, since India has become part of the British Empire, and travellers are 
directing their footsteps towards the “ Dark Continent.” In color it is tawny- 
yellow, growing lighter on the under parts. The ears and tip of the tail are 
hlack, and the male possesses a mane. The lion when full-sized stands about 
four feet in height and is ten or eleven feet in length. The lioness is smaller 
in size, but fiercer in disposition. With the multiplication of museums and 
zoological gardens, this product of African soil has become familiar to the average 
person, so that our readers will doubtless have sufficient opportunity for examin¬ 
ing the animal from the standpoint of the naturalist. 

There are reasons why the accessibility of the lion in zoological gardens 
does not furnish the means for personal examination, inasmuch as the lion 
itself is too uninterested in the progress of science to co-operate with the stu¬ 
dent. Hence, although the lion’s tongue is well worth examining, it is safe 
to say that most of us will be satisfied to take the word of African travellers. 
The tongue of the lion, even more than that of the cat, is covered with num¬ 
berless minute cone-like papillae, so curved as to lie with the points towards 
the throat. These serve to strip the flesh from animals, while the tongue of 
a dog is entirely smooth, since it is not used for any such purpose. So, too, 
the claws of the lion, and of the cat family in general, are retractile, and when 
not in use are withdrawn within the padding of the foot; when needed, the 
tendons above relax and those below contract. The lion does not grind its 
food, but tears it into strips, and then swallows the pieces, which are mace¬ 
rated in the stomach. 


650 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



The Lion, so long credited with being the “ king of beasts,” has, in our 
democratic days, been shorn of much of his glory, for science deals but hardly with 
mistaken ideas, even though these have the support of antiquity and even the 
attractiveness of ^Esop’s Fables. Livingstone and other African travellers say that 
the lion is only a cowardly thief in the night, and that’it can be put to flight by 
the barking of dogs, the shouts of persons, a bright light, or even by a stout 
whip fearlessly applied. He will fight only in extremity and even then will 
not “ fight to a finish.” But let this last characteristic count in maintaining 
his reputation for magnanimity, even though his ferocious courage is to be but 
a myth. It seems that a lion becomes a man-eater when he no longer has the 
teeth required for mangling the flocks and wild animals. Entertaining as 
Buffon is, his reputation as a trustworthy naturalist has been wrecked by the 
larger opportunities and increased information of the scientists who have 
succeeded him. Lions , like men, form hunting-parties and co-operate in the 

capture of game, which 
they drive in con¬ 
stantly narrowing cir¬ 
cles. Dr. Livingstone 
asserts that it is hardly 
possible to distinguish 
between the roar of a 
lion and the cry of an 
ostrich. The lion seems 
to stand a good chance 
of becoming extinct, 
for he is no longer 
found in Asia, Asia 
Minor, Greece or Per¬ 
sia, and has almost dis¬ 
appeared from Hindo- 
stan. The Indian lion 
is smaller in stature 
than the African lion, 
take care! has a shorter and thin¬ 

ner mane, and is rep¬ 
resented by the Bengal lion , the Arabian or Persian lion , and the marvellous 
lion of Goojerat. The African, likewise, represents three species: the yellow- 
brown, full-maned Barbary lion , the light-yellow lion of Senegal , and the Cape 
lion which is either brown or yellow in its color. The maximum size of the 
lion is about eight feet, with an allowance of some four feet more for the tail. 

Sir Samuel Baker tells of finding a lion within thirty yards of his camp. 
He baited it with a wounded buffalo and thus tracked it to the jungle. Coming 
suddenly upon the animal, he shot it from the small distance of three yards, and 
as it bounded away, was greatly astonished to find its place taken by a lioness 
which escaped while Baker’s attendants were making up their minds whether 
to hand their master a loaded gun. or to seek safety in flight. The next day, 
the lion was found in a dying condition. At one time Baker’s camp was invaded 
by a lion which, to effect an entrance, had to break through a dense and high 
thorn-picket. It was finally driven away by firebrands and met its death while 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


651 

roaring in rage about the camp. After an unsuccessful all-day’s lion hunt, 
Baker suddenly came upon one but ten yards distant. He shot it in the spine 
and it rolled over and over, roaring and tearing the ground. In the morning 
Baker found the lion still unable to get away and but ten minutes’ walk from 
the camp. Even then, by a supreme effort, it rose to its feet and showed 
fight. It was found to weigh five hundred and fifty pounds, and required the 
efforts of eight men to load it upon a camel. 

A man and a boy were sitting with their legs hanging over a bank when 
a lion approached beneath, and seizing the man’s legs dragged him down and 
made off with him—which act serves to illustrate the extreme boldness the 



KING OF THE) JUNGLE REALM. 


king of beasts sometimes exhibits in contradistinction with the cowardice with 
which he has been charged. 

One trustworthy traveller tells of riding up to a lion in the spirit of mere 
bravado, and by shooting his pistol above its head, driving the lion away as if 
it were a patient ass, or a much-abused ox. Naturally he came to the conclu¬ 
sion that the lion is neither ferocious nor noble. On the other hand, Living¬ 
stone, having shot one of several lions which were attacking the herds, and 
believing that the creature was powerless because in the throes of death, had 
an experience more thrilling than desirable. He approached the seemingly- 









652 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


helpless brute, when it suddenly sprang upon him and treated him as a well- 
trained terrier does a victimized rat or cat. The doctor found that his sole 
defence lay in simulating the limpness and unresistingness of death until an 
attendant could safely get a shot at the lion without imperilling his master. 
When this happened, the lion deserted Livingstone and bit through the thigh 
of his fresh assailant, and a second attendant coming to the rescue was seized 
by the shoulder and saved from being horribly maimed and mangled only by 
the wounds of the lion opportunely proving fatal at that very moment. Dr. 
Livingstone found that he had received eleven bites in his arm and was, there- 



LION SEIZING A BUFFALO. 


fore, well-qualified to report from personal experience as well as with the weight 
of his profession as a missionary, upon the effects of the lion's bite. He says 
that the lion ’s bite is poisonous and resembles a gunshot wound. Parker Gill- 
more, whose books always have interest, tells of finding a lion and lioness 
temporarily occupying a native’s hut while the owner was absent, and how he 
himself retired quickly, noiselessly, precipitately and without desire to disturb the 
fierce beasts in their peaceful slumbers and dreams which, doubtless, dwelt upon 
victories yet to be won. Upon another occasion he came suddenly upon a 
sleeping lion , and while his majesty, aroused by the intrusion, was taking a 
preparatory yawn before collecting his energies, Gillmore shot and mortally 






















THE LIVING WORLD. 


653 

wounded it. At another time a hunter, while stalking a rhinoceros, suddenly 
discovered that a lion was stalking him, so that he was compelled to change 
his game. The lion is so fearful of a trap that it will not attack horses or 
cattle while these are tied. Hence it first tries by its roarings and odor to 
get up a stampede, and if successful, then pursues and captures its prey A 
very striking instance of this wariness of the lion was furnished in the case of 
a horse which, having thrown its rider and run away, was caught by the bridle 
on the limb of a tree. Two days afterwards, the hunters found the horse 
uninjured, although it had had the constant companionship of quite a partv 
of lions. Three lions were once watched while they hunted a wounded buffalo 
which they finally succeeded in “pulling down,” biting always at the withers! 
The hunters appeared as the 
lions were beginning their 
feast, and shooting one of the 
lions a second betook itself 
to precipitate flight, while the 
third one persisted in continu¬ 
ing the feast until it fell a 
victim to such a lack of pru¬ 
dence. On the other hand, 
the lion is not unfrequently 
killed by the buffalo. O11 one 
occasion a lion attempted to 
secure a buffalo calf, but the 
cow protected it both valiantly 
and successfully, terminating 
the contest by tearing the lion 
to pieces with her horns. 

The lion has a more than 
decent respect for the ele¬ 
phant and rhinoceros, and 
leaves any attacks upon them 
to other foes. In some parts of 
Africa the man eating lion is 
regarded (not sardonically) 
as the walking tenement 
of the souls of chiefs deceased. This unfortunate belief adds yet more 
to the paralysis which affects the natives when a man-eater is ravaging 
their villages. The terrible destruction of life in southern Africa is shown by 
the Government Reports for a single year. There were lost, in a single year, 
forty-six persons by elephants, eight hundred and nineteen by lions, two hundred 
and ten by leopards, eighty-five by bears, five hundred and sixty-four by w r olves 
and twenty-four by hyenas. On the other hand, the slaughter of animals was as 
follows: Thirty-two elephants, fifteen hundred and seventy-nine lions, thirty-five 
hundred and fifty-nine leopards, thirteen hundred and seventy-four bears, forty- 
nine hundred and twenty-four wolves and fourteen hundred and seventeen 
hyenas. 

The Tiger (.Felis tigris) is Asiatic in its habitat, and is there monarch of 
all he surveys, unless it be the buffalo and the elephant. The Asiatic lion is 



I.ION ATTACKING A GIRAFFE. 





654 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



inferior to the African lion, and hence the disputes about the relative claims 
of the lion and the tiger arise from taking a partial case. The tiger has been 
so often exhibited in menageries, and is so constant a member of zoological 
gardens, that it is wholly unnecessary to dwell upon its beautiful coloring or 
general appearance. In passing, however, it may be well to challenge the 
attention to the wonderful suitableness of the tiger’s coloring for concealment 
in the jungle. The noiselessness of its tread, and the crouching in which it 
indulges when it wishes to escape observation, are further evidences of its having 
been provided with facilities and instincts suitable for the life appointed to it. 

The natives cap¬ 
ture the tiger by the 
use of prauss, a kind 
of bird-lime. The 
tiger , in approaching 
the bait, has to walk 
over leaves which 
have been liberally 
sprinkled with prauss , 
and as the leaves 
stick to his feet, the 
tiger becomes more 
and more impotent. 
Lying down in his 
rage, he becomes yet 
more dressed in this 
shirt of Nessus, until 
finally he is at the 
mercy of the hunter. 
Another device is the 
bow-and-arrow trap, 
so arranged that the 
tiger , in seizing the 
bait, shoots himself 
fatally. 

When the native 
hunters make a game 

ROME UNDER NERO. FEEDING CHRISTIANS TO THE EIONS. drive it will UOt 

unfrequently happen 

that enclosed within their circle will be several tigers , and these will charge 
most viciously at the human fence, sometimes escaping by killing those who 
stand in their way, sometimes succeeding in leaping over their heads, sometimes 
falling before a shower of spears, and at other times driven back in surly rage 
before the tempest of weapons. Many of the savage rulers from time to time 
dispatch their armies to hunt in the most approved martial order. Tigers have 
learned that this soldiery is somewhat timid in its enforced obedience, and not 
unfrequently they will jump over the heads of the vanguard, and clear them¬ 
selves a path to safety. 

A tigress charged upon the elephant and hunter and ran them off several 
times. Having fired into her ambush the hunter supposed her to be dead, but 






























THE LIVING WORLD. 


655 


on his approach she rushed forth and seized the driver of the elephant by his 
foot. Firing again the only response the hunter found was a spring of the 
tigress upon the trunk and jaw of the elephant. The agitated elephant fell upon 
its knees and dug up the sand with its tusks while the tigress safely ensconced 
between continued its work of destruction. The sudden pose of the elephant 
affected the hunter like the unexpected stumbling of a horse, and he found 
himself burrowing into the sand without any expectation of digging deeply 
enough and speedily enough to defeat an undesired attack in the rear. The 
tigress , however, either lacked hind-sight or was well enough off as it was, for 
when the hunter, failing to find safety downward, concluded to climb upward, 



THE GREAT JUNGEE CAT. 


he found himself an unnoticed spectator of the battle between the tigress and 
the elephant—if battle that can be called—in which the elephant received and 
the tigress inflicted all the punishment. Not wishing to intrude, the hunter with¬ 
drew, until having rejoined his panic-stricken escort, he was carried to meet an 
elephant which as yet had not participated 111 the hunt. Thus re-mounted the 
hunter returned to the scene of conflict, and having again shot the tigress, she 
deserted her position of advantage and threw herself upon the thigh of the 
elephant (the defeated one making a prompt retreat)-. Finally the tigress, 
between the appeals of the elephant and of the ammunition of the hunter, was 
induced to take a reluctant farewell. When found dead the next day, she 
demonstrated the fact that her body contained eleven bullets, and that any one 
of the wounds would have proved fatal. 







656 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


One man-eating tiger devastated thirteen villages, controlled fifteen square 
miles of territory and killed seven hundred and twenty-seven persons. As was 
remarked in the case of the lion, the tiger hunts of India have been so frequent 
and so often described that it seems unnecessary in a work such as The 
Living World to repeat what would prove as wearisome as a twice-told tale. 

The Leopard (Felis leopardus) has white spottings in the centre of im¬ 
perfect black rings. It is often called by the names ingwe and onguirara. 



ROYAL BENGAL TIGER AND YOUNG. 


The African chiefs are very fond of wearing fezzes made from the tail of the 
leopard. On one occasion a leopard invaded a camp and, possessing himself 
of a goat, carried it away with him. Paul du Chaillu, whose statements, 
received at first with incredulity, seem now to be receiving the respect 
which follows confirmation, tells how he was waked from a sound sleep by a 
leopard\ but which did not offer to do him any violence beyond reminding him 
that his surroundings were such as demanded constant vigilance. 






THE LIVING WORLD. 


657 


The Ngulule, or Maned Leopard, is larger but more cowardly, and its 
color is gray witli dirty spottings. 

The Small Ingwe is the smallest and fiercest of the leopard species. Its 



TIGER STALKING HIS PREY. 

S P°r S VGry bla( : k and lts coat strikingly handsome. An African traveller tells 
ot finding two cubs at play and of watching for a long while their kitten-like 



A MAN EATER. 


rompings until one cub starting for the jungle, he shot the other. On another 
occasion he had a most exciting chase and a most desperate and prolonged con¬ 
test with a small ingwe . The party had been reduced to four persons and two 
42 









































































THE LIVING WORLD. 


658 

unusually powerful hounds when the ingwe was cornered in a cairn and 
wounded. In spite of four shots, each one of which told, it at once charged 



TIGERS BEFORE THEIR LAIR. 


upon the hunters, but was after awhile diverted by the persistent dogs. It finally 



HUNTERS ATTACKED BY LEOPARDS. 


escaped from them and took refuge under a large rock. One of the hunters 
approached the opening and, having fired, fell back, while before the smoke had 






the living world . 


659 





Z7 the ^ k lea P e d forth like a projectile from a catapult, but while 
still in mid-air a shot by another hunter ended its life. The ingwe scorns to 
least upon dead game. 

A leopard has frequently been 
known to make off with an ox by 
making the ox serve as an un¬ 
willing steed bestrode by an unwel¬ 
come rider. It will alight on the 
ox’s shoulders, seize it with its 
teeth in front of the withers, dig 
one of its fore claws into the neck 
of the ox and the other into its 
back, and thus be borne along until 
its huge prey falls exhausted and the 
leopard can complete his feast at his 
own pleasure. On one occasion a 
hunter’s dogs found a leopard prowl¬ 
ing about the camp and made an 

attack upon it, when it coolly seized one of the dogs and carried it away as a 

dietary experiment. 

The African Leop¬ 
ard {Felis pardus) is a 
beautiful creature, if, 
as has been claimed, 
beauty is a mere matter 
of the skin. Its ground 
color is fawn inclining 
to yellow, g r o w i n g 
lighter in shade on the 
under parts. Upon this 
groundwork is scattered 
a profusion of dark or 
black spots which ap¬ 
pear to advantage from 
African leopard. the contrast. It lives in 

the trees, not amidst them, and hence has at times been called the tree tip-er. 
The leopard , or panther, carries 
its cubs as a cat does her kittens, 
and it is an amusing sight in a 
menagerie to see the mother pick 
up a cub in her teeth and carry it 
to some other part of the cage, as 
exhibiting a characteristic of the cat 
species, of which the leopard is a 
member. 

The Chetah, Hunting 
Leopard, Hunting Cat or 
Youze ( Gueparda , or Cynolocrus 
jubata ), is found alike in Africa and 


Asia. It 


INGWE. 

taller than a leopard, 


is 




6oo 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


but is not specially strong-limbed. It cannot climb, and is neither swift nor 

possessed of great endurance, 
but it makes up for these 
shortcomings by its stealthi¬ 
ness and craft. In Asia the 
chetah is what the falcon and 
hawk were to the knights of’ 
old, and is successfully used 
for the capture of deer. It is. 
readily tamed, and its gentle, 
even disposition renders it a 
very acceptable pet. Its skin 
is like that of the leopard,, 
although the hair is much, 
rougher. 

In Africa the chetah has. 
not been domesticated, and. 
can be seen from time to< 
time wandering about in 
search of its prey. It will 
creep up on the antelope or deer until within easy reach, and then leap upon 
it, and never leave it 
while the antelope is 
alive. When the 
chetah is used as the 
assistant of man in 
the hunt, it is hooded 
until a herd of deer 
is sighted, when it is 
turned loose and will 
speedily make a suc¬ 
cessful attack. As 
soon as the chetah has 
sprung upon the game 
the hunters rush up 
and tempt it away by 
a platter full of blood. 

The hood is then re¬ 
placed, and if the hunt 
is to be continued, 
the same process is 
repeated. As a pet, 
the chetah can safely 
be permitted to wan¬ 
der about like a house 
dog, and will play with 
the children as if it 
were a kitten, and even at the zoological garden it is a favorite with keeper; 
and visitors. 




LEOPARD SECURING ITS PREY. 























THE LIVING WORLD. 


661 




. The Jaguar, or American Tiger (.Felis onca ), is nearly as large as the 
tiger and quite as fierce. His sinewy body is marked with long black stripes, 

•of thighs and legs, he ex¬ 
changes the stripes for 
spots. His head is round 
and large, his legs short 
and stout, and on the belly 
his color passes into a pale 
yellow. He prefers the 
jungle and the marsh, for 
while dependent for the 
most part upon the herb¬ 
eating animals, he never 
objects to a mess of fish 
which he quite frequently 
secures for himself. As a 
rule the jaguar will not 
attack man, but when he 
-does he is an enemy to 
be dreaded. It is four or 
five feet long, with an ad¬ 
ditional allowance of two 
feet for the tail, and it 
stands about two feet from 
the ground. It is yellow 
colored with roundish black jaguar watching for prev. 

spotted figures lying in parallel lines. Its white belly sets off the rest of its 

coloring, and renders its skin very beau¬ 
tiful. It is very stoutly built and its 
immense head is furnished with jaws 
which seem capable of indefinite expan¬ 
sion. It is an expert climber and leads 
the monkey tribe many a merry dance. 
Its appetite is voracious, and no viand 
is treated contemptuously. It is sur¬ 
prisingly noiseless and stealthy, and 
always makes its attack from behind. 
Its patience is unwearying, and it will 
for days stalk the traveller hoping for 
an unwary moment. The adventures 
ascribed by poets to the lion and tiger 
are even more appropriate for the jaguar , 
with whom it is an ordinary event to 
throw itself on the neck of a giraffe, 
zebra or antelope, and drive it at full 

MEXICAN jaguar. spee d to its death It is prop erly a 

tropical American animal, but has worked its way as far north as Texas. 
When it feels an appetite for fish, it baits the finny tribe with its saliva, and 



662 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


as they rise to the surface, kills them and draws them in with its paws. It is 
very fond of turtles, which it instinctively turns on their backs. As it catches 
all that it sees, the natives have found it profitable to merely glean in its path¬ 
way. The natives 
kill it with spears, 
or capture it by 
lassooing. Its most 
dreaded enemy is 
the boa constrictor 
which is said'to get 
the jaguar occasion¬ 
ally in its fatal folds. 

The Puma 
(Fell's, or leopardus 
concolor ,) is found 
throughout the two 
Americas from the 
extreme south to the 
extreme north. It goes by different names in different localities—the panther , 
American lion , cougar , painter , and possibly one or two others. Many and 



SOUTH AMERICAN PUMA. 



JAGUAR FISHING. 


thrilling are the stories of which it forms the subject, and numerous and fre¬ 
quent have been adventures to which they imparted the liveliest interest. It 








THE LIVING WORLD. 


663 




attains the length of nearly five feet, and the stature, measured from the 
shoulder, is over two feet. Stealthy as would be expected from its relation¬ 
ship to the cat, it utters neither roar nor growl to warn its foe. It is 
brownish-red or reddish-gray in color, an apparent provision for its better con¬ 
cealment. In South America it is said to deceive its prey by imitating the sound 
made by the deer. The puma 
abounds in California, and 
thence eastward for quite a 
distance, so that stories true 
and apocryphal reach us often 
since mining and ranching, 
and pleasure seeking, have 
made communication so fre¬ 
quent between the “Wild 
West” and the more thickly- 
settled East. The puma and 
the grizzly bear seem to be 
natural-born enemies, and 
many are the evidences of 
contests in which the puma 
seems always to be the victor. 

It is asserted without con¬ 
tradiction that the grizzlies, 

being unable to cope sue- the poma, or cameorni. lion. 

cessfully with the pumas , take 

their revenge by killing every puma cub that they find unprotected, as if a 
second Herod in the grizzly kingdom had ordered a new slaughter of the 
innocents, or as if a boy took his revenge upon the younger brother of a for¬ 
midable antagonist. 

The Ounce (Felts trbts) is equal to the leopard in size and also resembles 
it in beautiful colorings as in habits. It is found throughout the central region 

of Asia especially at very high alti¬ 
tudes, which it prefers, being proof 
against cold. It will not attack man, 
though its chief food is both wild and 
domestic animals. 

The Serval, Tiger Cat, or Bush 

Cat (Felts serval , or leopardus serval ), 
has the general appearance of a lynx. 
It is golden-gray above and white below, 
dark-spotted, and sometimes striped. It 
is about a foot and a half in height, 
and inclusive of its tail, about three 
feet long. Its fur is a valued and not 
texas puma. uncommon article of commerce. It is 

found in South Africa, and seems to be quite amiable in its disposition. 

The Yagouarondi ( Leopardus , or Fells yagouarondtl) is of a blackish-brown, 
sometimes tinged with white or black. Its habitat is Guiana, and it is about 
the size of the common cat. 






664 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




The Marbled Tiger Cat ( Felts , or Leopardus marmorata ,) is a mottled 
brownish-gray, and is found in Malacca. 

The Ocelot (Fells, or leopardus pardalis ,) belongs to tropical America. 
Inclusive of the tail it is about four feet in length, and about a foot and a half 
high. The fawn color that furnishes the ground work is banded and edged with 
black, and head, tail and neck are spotted, or patched with dark color. At the 

base of its black ear 
it has a singular 
white spot. The skin 
is so beautiful as to 
have high value to 
those who indulge in 
rugs made from the 
skins of wild animals. 
Although cat-like in 
size, it has the 
strength, agility and 
instincts of the leopard 
family. The dispo¬ 
sition varies with 
the individual, one be¬ 
ing sociable and play¬ 
ful, another surly and 

OUNCE. SaVa ^' „ . 

The Painted 

Ocelot {Felis picta) is deeper hued and more distinctly marked than the 
common ocelot. It is white on the throat, which has distinct black lines upon it. 

The Eyra, or Eyra Cat (Felis eyra), has its habitat in Texas, but is now 
so nearly extinct as to be very rarely seen, and its habits are little known. 

The Clouded, 

Tortoise Shell Tiger, 
or Rimau-dahan 
(Fells macrocelus , or 
Leopardus macrocelus ), 
is marked as if in imi¬ 
tation of all the felidae. 

The ground color is 
gray, shaded with 
brown, and having two 
black bands running 
the entire length. 

The hair is glossy, 

silken and long, and serval. 

the markings, though 

irregular in form, are very beautiful to the eye. 

The Small Tortoise Shell Tiger (Leopardus macroceloides) differs little 
but in size. 

The Mitis, or Chati (. Leopardus , or Fells mills), is smaller and paler. Like 
the weasel it can get through the smallest holes, and like the monkey it can 

















THE LIVING WORLD. 


665 


climb anything. It is very destructive to poultry, which it holds in an esteem 
above all other kinds of food. 

The Pampas Cat, or Jungle Cat (Felis pajeros ), is brown striped and 
sandy colored, is very long haired, and belongs to Buenos Ayres. 

The Caffre Cat ( Felis cciffra) is South African, and its two feet of length 
is gray-brown with black stripes; its tail is long and bushy. 



marbled cat {Felis martnorala). rimau-dahan, or tortoise shell tiger. 



The Nepaul Tiger Cat (Felis nepalensis ) has black bands and spots 
arranged lengthwise. 

The Kubouk (Felis javensis) is the species found in Java. 

The Mirvini (Felis moormennis ) is a mountaineer of Nepaul. 

The Wogati (Felis viverrimci) is found in India. 

The Balu (Felis sum a Iran a) 
belongs to Sumatra. 

The Chinese Tiger Cat, or 
Maou (Felis chinensis) , is a yellow¬ 
ish-gray species fairly common in 


EUROPEAN WILD CAT. 


EGYPTIAN CAT. 


the neighborhood of Formosa, though its range is throughout southern China. 
It has a length of body of about two feet. Occasional specimens are found 111 

the Philippines. „ „ , 

The Egyptian Cat (Felis caligulata ) resembles the pampas cat, but is not 
so bright in its coloring. To the Egyptian the cat has always been a sacred 
object, and upon its death was piously embalmed. 


666 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




The European Wild Cat (Felts catus) is grayish-yellow with tiger-like 
markings. In length it is about two feet, exclusive of the tail. It is still 

found in Scotland, 
but though formerly 
abundant in England, 
it has now d i s a p - 
peared from that 
Country. 

The Chaus, or 
Jungle Cat (. Felis 
chans, Chaus lyrzcns) , is 
tawny, with indistinct 
stripes. It wears two 
coats of hair, and thus 
seems to be heavier 
than it is. It is found 
alike in Asia and 
Africa, generally 
about bogs. 

The Texas Wild 
Cat (Lynx macula/us) 
is found also in Cali¬ 
fornia. 

The Red Cat 

(Lynx lasciatus ), 
found in the far west, 
is distinguished by 
its color, and by the 
abundance of its soft 
fur. 

The Caracal, 
Ciagosh, or Black¬ 
eared Lynx (Felis 
caracal ), is found 
both in Asia and in 
Africa. Its color is brown, inclining to red above and lighter below. The 
under parts are spotted, and white hair appears stretching from the tip of the 
upper lip to 
the end of the 
chin. It is 
about the size 
of a small dog, 
and has the 
most marvel¬ 
lous power of 
leaping and 
climbing. It 
mostly acts as 
account. 


TEXAS WILD CAT. 


WILD CAT STALKING A FAWN. 


dependent of the lion but sometimes hunts on its own 






THE LIVING WORLD. 


667 


The European Lynx (. Felts virgatus) is found from northern Spain to 
Scandinavia, and also in Asia. The summer dress of the European lynx is a 
dark-gray, intermingled with red, but this becomes a grizzly-white with the 




WILD CAT OF THE WESTERN STATES. 


EUROPEAN LYNX. 



approach of winter. It is spotted and patched in darker color. It is about 
three feet in length, exclusive of its tail, and is hunted for its fur. 

The Southern, or 
Pardine Lynx (Lynx 
pardinus ), is marked 
more like a leopard and 
flourishes in Spain and 
Portugal. 

The Canada Lynx 

(Fells canadensis) wears 
its hair longer and sub¬ 
stitutes black for red with 
an intermixture of gray. 

It runs in. leaps, light¬ 
ing on all four feet at 
once. It is harmless 
and easily killed by a 
blow, notwithstanding 
the fact that it is the giant ape (extinct) ( Mesopithecus peutelici). 

largest of the lynxes. 

The Booted Lynx (Fells, or lynx caligatus ,) wears long, black hair on the 
sides and back of its legs, so that its appearance has suggested the popular 
name. It is a small animal and lives in Asia and Africa. 


PRIMATES. 

The highest of the mammals, excluding man, are the Quaarumana , or four- 
handed animals, including the various species of monkeys, baboons and apes and 



668 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


lemurs. These animals come nearer than others to an actual resemblance t< 
man, and yet, when examined with reference to structure, and not simply witl 
regard to superficial resemblances, they are as easily separable as the lowesi 
of animal organizations. The following scheme may simplify matters for oui 
readers : 

QUADRUMANA, OR FOUR-HANDED ANIMALS. 



Hands, not paws or feet : Thumbs generally, but not always opposable, 
Teeth : Four incisors above and below; molars like those of a human 
being and five above and five below (American monkeys have six instead 

of five) ; canines project 
from the least degree no¬ 
ticeable to very tusk-like 
protuberances. 

Nails : Flat and stretched out. 
Centre of gravity always such 
as to prevent a perfectly 
upright position when 
moving. 

Nostrils, anterior in Old 
W orld species (down 
nose) : lateral in Ameri¬ 
can (flat nose). 

Callosities and pouches 
absent in American mon¬ 
keys. 

Highest —Chimpanzee: Skull 
changes from human 
shape to that of the 
baboon. Can walk erect, 
use knife and fork, do 
domestic service of a 
chambermaid, build 
kitchen fires, unfurl 
sails, turn capstans, 
heave anchors, learn 
„ rights and lefts of shoes 

chimpanzee eating with a SPOON. j 

and gloves. 

Second Highest —Gorilla : Quadrupedal j elongated arms. 

Third Highest —Orang-outang. 

Fourth Highest —Gibbon: Callosities like monkeys; pouched and tailless 
like apes. 

The Primates (highest class animals) are distinguished from other 
orders by mental peculiarities, as well as by anatomical structure, but the natu¬ 
ralists by profession prefer to confine their attention to physical organization 
alone. It is the most recent usage to make man a class by himself, so that 
for the ends sought by The Living World, primates will be confined to the 
four-handed animals, or quadrumana. The anatomical peculiarities are opposable 
thumbs, shoulder-blades, nails rather than claws, orbits of the head enclosed in 











THE LIVING WORLD. 


669 

bone, temporary and permanent sets of teeth, at least two mammae, and posterior 
^part of the brain distinctly developed. As would be expected by those who 
Jiave followed the successive steps in The Living World, all of these charac¬ 
teristics are not always present in every animal and family; for the very fact 
that one class seems to shade off into another, and that we find animals classed 
variously because of their contradictions of organism, seems to us but another evi¬ 
dence of the soundness of the doctrine of evolution as a method for working, and 
the only reasonable explanation of those reversions known to occur among animals, 
as for example in the case of the wild horse of the pampas. The primates are sepa¬ 
rated into the lemurs and the anthropoids (or human-like animals), and the two 
classes are distinguished by structure, distribution, appearance and habits. The 
lemurs have free communication between the orbits of the face and the cavities, 
of the temples; at least one nail is clawed and the others are quite flat, and 
the hands and feet are large. The habitat of most of the lemurs is Madagascar, 
though one family is African. The appearance of these animals can be deferred 
until the various species pass in review; and any discussion of their habits, 
will properly find its place when the species are considered. 

Considering generally the primates, or the monkey family, we are struck 
with many curious characteristics which serve to render them anomalous, if we 
choose to regard them as occupying even a remote relation to man. We find 
them provided with four hands, by which we might conclude, by analogies, 
that they were capable of exercising the double function of hands or feet, which 
is the case; and yet while this is true, they are incapable of using their hinder- 
limbs except in conjunction with the anterior arms, and they are thus forced 
to walk on all fours. Many species of the monkey family may rise to a sitting 
posture when resting, or even walk upon the posterior limbs, but they can never 
assume an erect position. A dog may be taught to walk on its hind legs with 
quite as much ease and gracefulness as the chimpanzee, orang or gorilla, and, 
30 far as naturalness goes, one is quite as easy when upon two limbs as the 
Dther. Again, we are forced to observe the marked difference between the hand 
of the monkey and that of man. In the former we may perceive a wonderful 
adaptability, the four fingers, united to an opposable thumb, giving the power 
of firmly grasping or of picking up the smallest object; but yet it is a hand 
only by the courtesy of exaggeration, for it has all the appearance of a paw,, 
as well adapted for locomotion as for grasping. 

The nose, characteristic of the monkey family, is not always the same,, 
there being three distinct types, viz.: the flat, pointed and proboscis. In all' 
these are beheld the symbolism of the brute, also in the smallness of the eyes 
and the narrow line that separates them. Hair is not necessarily a distinguish¬ 
ing characteristic of the brute, since considerable growths have developed upon 
man, especially under circumstances of long-continued exposure to severity of 
ffimate, as nature is ever so regardful that she exerts herself to counteract 
svery unfavorable condition. Nor is the presence of a tail the special mark 
bf the brute, since man possesses a rudimentary appendage which physiologists 
designate as the coccyx. But aside from these possible similarities, observable 
only to those scientists who make a study of structure, the points at variance 
between man and monkey are not only distinct, even besides the highest 
attribute, the power to reason, but in them we see the measureless distance 
that separates man from the anthropoid. 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


670 


The Anthropoids are marked by greater development of the posterior lobe 

of the brain; by bony partitions 
between the facial orbits and tem¬ 
poral cavities; by a human form, 
and by pectoral mammae, always 
two in number. Much unneces¬ 
sary irritation and uneasiness has 
been caused by the rash specula¬ 
tions and the unsupported inferences 
of men writing about natural his¬ 
tory, rather than confining them¬ 
selves, like the most eminent sci¬ 
entists, to gathering data and 
refraining strictly from analogical 
reasoning. Scientists, such as 
Saint George Mivart and Darwin, 
find ample employment for their 
abilities in studying nature and 
endeavoring to understand her 
scrolls, instead of treating these 
as palimpsests for their own 
glosses. In the matter of structure, 
as well as in that of intelligence, 
there is a wider gulf between 
the anthropoid and man, than 
between the various classes of the rest of the animal world, so that the study 
of the monkey tribe is quite as 
likely to lead away from “ the 
missing link” as to hold out 
any promise of finding it. 

Still, with reference to the 
succession of forms becoming 
more highly organized as the 
earth became fitted for their su¬ 
premacy, the anthropoids make 
a fitting peroration to the story 
of Genetic development. The 
lowest forms of the anthropoids 
—the marmosets —are found, as 
would be expected by such of 
our readers as have accepted 
our own conclusions, amidst the 
rank luxuriance of vegetable life 
which prevails in tropical 
America. We cannot do better 
than to cite, as we have done in 
other of our books, Sir Thomas 
Buckle’s characterization of the 
Brazilian forests, and of similar riotness of vegetable life in other lands and 



JNDRI. 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


671 


In other times. Amid this pomp and splendor of nature, no place is left for 
man. He is reduced to insignificance by the majesty with which he is 
surrounded. The forces that oppose him are so formidable that he has never 
been able to make headway against them, never able to rally against their 
accumulated pressure. 

The Babakoto (. Lichanotis , or Indris brevicaudatus , or mitratus ,) is slim but 
tall, has the sharp muzzle and the head of a dog, is furred to the very tips of its 
toes, excepting its face, and its soft, somewhat wool-like coat is a curious mixture 
of black and white—a study, as the British artist would call it. Its black, 
erect ears rise out of a white ground which, beginning at the back of the 
head, extends over part of the neck, forms a boa or small collar round the 
front of the neck, and spreads out on 
the throat, reaching the under jaw. Its 
sides, outer surface of the hind legs and 
inner surface of the fore legs likewise 
are white or gray. Its habitat is Mada¬ 
gascar, but its history has not been 
fully studied. 

The Lemurs ( Lemures ) occupy the 
debatable ground between the primates 
and preceding species. The appearance 
of the head is fox-like, and its long 
muzzle would suggest any family but 
that of the monkey. 

The Diadem Lemur (Propithecus 

diadema) has a white, tiara-like band on 
its forehead. The rest of its body is 
soot-colored above and white beneath, 

except that the hindquarters and hind 
legs are brown; the tip of the tail is 
white and gold, like the furniture of 
Louis Quatorze. Its head is roundish, 
its body is about a foot and three- 

quarters in length, and is supplemented 
by a tail but little shorter. 

The Woolly Lemur, Madagas¬ 

car Indri, or Wahi (Indris, or Licha 
noiis laniger) , is a foot in length and 
carries a tail nearly as long as its body, 
stripe on each thigh. Its black face is lighted up by disproportionately large, 
greenish-gray eyes. Its muzzle is long and pointed, hound-like in appear¬ 
ance, and projects from a small, round head, further ornamented with erect, 
black-haired ears, and a white pad on the head between. Its cry resembles 
the wail of a baby, and hence the animal is frequently called the old man of 
the woods. 

The Crowned Lemur (Propithecus coronatus) does not differ greatly from 
the diadem lemur, except in the arrangement of the hair upon the top of _ its 
head, which forms a crown, and in its habits it resembles the indri, from which, 
however, it is distinguished by the possession of a tail. 



CROWNED DEMUR. 


It is brown in color, with a white 


672 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




The Ruffled Lemur (Lemur macaco ) has its habitat in Madagascar and 
the neighboring islands, is as large as a cat has dilatable eyes, and presents 

very striking contrasts of black 
and white in its long, silken 
hair. Its black face is set off 
by a ruff of white whiskers, 
and its long, full tail termi¬ 
nates in quite a white plume. 
It is a good runner, jumper 
and climber. It is shy and 
timid, but when forced to defend 
itself, displays no want of 
courage or lack of effective 
teeth. It belongs to the class- 
of monkeys which form phil¬ 
harmonic societies, and hold 
a nightly saengerfest, at which 
each struggles to outdo the 
others in the prolonged utter¬ 
ance of the deepest and most 
rukfi,ed lemur. sepulchral tones; evidently 

they believe in conquering the 
thorough bass and basso profundo before venturing upon the parts which, 
lend liveliness and variety to the body 
of the song. 

The Maki-Macoa, or Ring¬ 
tailed Lemur {Lemur macoa , or catta ), 
is a graceful little monkey, which has 
none of the repulsiveness of features 
which belongs to apes. It is a cin- 
dery-gray in color, the cheeks and 
throat being quite white, and its ex¬ 
traordinarily long tail being regularly 
ringed in black. Its little round ears 
are almost concealed by hair, and its 
fur is thick and soft. It is nocturnal 
in its habits, is docile, and readily 
adapts itself to captivity. Its length 
is somewhat less than a foot, with the 
addition of an eight or nine-inch tail. 

In captivity it is gentle and prank- 
some, and is specially addicted to 
weaving itself and its kind into a 
constantly changing living pattern. Its 
bones are so peculiar that the stretch¬ 
ing cut of the arm at once closes the 1. maki-macoa. 2. white-mantled make 
hands. 

The White-mantled Maki, or White-fronted Lemur (Lemur albifrons) Y 
varies the white, which is its prevailing color, by black shoulders* muzzle 
and tail. 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


673 




The Red Maki ( Lemur ruber) is satisfied to use white for his neck, head 
and for the ends of his feet; for the rest he indulges in nothing less than 
the. brightest of red. The makis are represented by many species, each of 
which indulges in a different coloring. The hair of the red maki is more 
woolly than that of the other species. 

The Mongoz ( Lemur mongoz ) 
has g;s muzzle white, and the Col¬ 
lared Lemur (Lemur co/laris) carries 
a brownish-black muzzle. 

The Gray Lemur (Hapalemur 
griseus ) is about two and a half feet 
in length, equally divided between 
body and tail. 

The Red Lemur (Hapalemur 
simus) belongs to the bamboo for¬ 
ests, is reddish, and its teeth fit 
beside each other like a knife blade 
shutting into the handle. It is some¬ 
times called the broad-nosed lemur. 

The Short-tailed Lemur (Lepi- 
lemur mustelinus ) is varied in color, 
the prevailing red becoming gray 
on the under parts, white on the 
throat, and brown on the tail, which, 

though not exactly short, is but two- mongoos, or INDIAN ichneumon {Lemur mongoz). 
thirds the length of the body. 

The Slender Loris (Loris, or Stenops gracilis ,) has only a rudimentary tail; 
has a muzzle which terminates very unexpectedly and abruptly; is very delicate 
in its structure, and is about three-quarters of a foot in length. Its habitat is 

Ceylon and the neighborhood; 
its color is gray above and white 
beneath; and its large, round 
eyes are made more weird by the 
dark hair of their orbits and the 
white streak which runs down 
the nose. 

The Slow-paced Loris 

(Stenops tardigradus) is much 
larger than the slender loris; 
its fur is more wool-like and 
lacks the reddish tinge to be 
found in the preceding species. 
The back of the head, the ears 
slender loris. and the orbits of the eyes are of 

a dark brown or chestnut color. 
Its circulatory system is peculiar because the usual arrangement seems to 
be reversed, as the reservoirs are located in the shoulders and thighs, and 
from them the network of veins and arteries is spread out. In captivity, at least, 
it is by preference carnivorous, and it is specially noticeable for its slothfulness. 


43 



674 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


There is a variety of the slow-paced loris in Java (Loris, or Nycticebus java- 
nicus ) and, like its family, it has the first finger on hands and feet turned 
backward. 

The Potto, or Aposora (Perodicticus potto), is a loris whose habitat is West 
African. Its tail, though exceedingly short, is still a real tail; its index finger 
is more than rudimentary, and of its three-quarters of a foot of length the body 
claims two-thirds. Its color is a grayish-chestnut, growing lighter on the under # 
parts; its muzzle is short and sprinkled with scattering white hairs, and it is 
regarded as sacred by the natives. 

The Angwatibo, or Bear Macaque ( Arctocebus calabarensis), is the potto 
of Calabar. It has but an incipient tail, and has its broad, cat-like ears ridged. 
Its body is less than a foot in length, and is covered by a short, thick woolly 
coat, brown dappled with gray. Its second fingers are rudimentary, but its 
thumbs are opposable. It is stoutly and symmetrically built, and its round 
eyes, although not unduly large, are made prominent by its long, slender, 
cylindrical muzzle, enhanced also by the brevity of its ears. 

The Brown Mouse Le¬ 
mur ( Cheirogaleus milii ) is fru- 
givorous and nocturnal. It is 
but a little more than half a 
foot in length, a grayish-brown, 
becoming whitish on the under 
parts ; has a pointed muzzle, pro¬ 
minent eyes, a liberal allowance 
in the matter of ears, and a 
tail which might belong to a 
rat, and which is of no service 
as an extra hand. It walks like 
a quadruped, but when eating it 
behaves like a squirrel. In com¬ 
mon with all the Madagascar 
lemurs it sleeps through the 
winter, supporting life for that 
nd by the fat accumulated in 

its bony. 

The Dwarf Lemur (Microcebus smithii ) is the smallest of the lemurs, and is 
arboreal, feeding upon plants and insects. It belongs to the fauna of Mada¬ 
gascar. 

The Thick-tailed Galago (Galago rrassicaudatus) carries a tail of afoot and 
a third, while the body which is to wag it is but about a foot. It is arboreal and 
nocturnal, and is found in the forests of Mozambique. It is unduly fond of 
palm wine, a beverage said by Sir Samuel Baker to be harmless to man, and 
drinking to excess from the supplies furnished by the natives recovers its ordi¬ 
nary faculties to find itself a captive. 

The Little Galago, or Madagascar Rat (Galago demioffi), resembles a 
rat in size and in coloring. Its large ears are perfectly translucent, and its eyes 
are full and lustrous. 

The Moholi (Galago moholi ) is a larger species whose coloring is gray 
above, white beneath, golden on the legs, and brown at the extremity of the 



bear macaque (Arctocebus calabarensis ). 
very brief period by an inactive digestion 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


675 



“tail. It builds a nest-like home in the fork of some tree, and during the day 
csleeps folded up in its ears. It leaps from bough to bough, is insectivorous, 
and belongs to the South African fauna. 

The Tarsier (Tarsius spectrum ) belongs to Borneo and its vicinity, and is 
•distinguished by the great length of its hands and feet. Its hands have palms 
which are springy and cushion-like, and the unnatural size of its great, owl-like 
eyes compensates for the shortness and smallness of its erect ears. Its tail is 
hairless except for a brush. Its fur or wool is short but thick and abundant, 
and its color is a mixture of 
•olive, gray and brown. Its 
motions resemble the hop¬ 
pings of the frog. It is some¬ 
times called the podji and 
the banca tarsier . 

The Aye-Aye (Chiromys 
jnadagascarensis) is like 
Polonius’ animal, built upon 
several quite distinct plans. 

In appearance it resembles 
the galago, while its denti¬ 
tion might lead one to sup¬ 
pose that it was one of the 
rodents. Its teeth are inci¬ 
sors, deeply set in sockets 
and acutely pointed. Its 
•coloring is gray beneath and 
reddish-brown above; the 
cheeks and throat are gray 
.and the feet black. It has 
large ears which are desti¬ 
tute of hair, and drags after 
it an exceedingly long and 
bushy black tail. It, like 
the other lemurs, sleeps by 
-day and forages by night. 

.Except for its bird-like nails 
or claws, it would bear some 
resemblance to the raccoon. 

It is called by the natives of 

Madagascar the handed mouse. Its three feet of length is so distributed as to 
allow fully one-half to the tail, and its brown eyes, tinged with yellow, dilate 
cnly at night. 

The Flying Lemur, or Flying Colugo (Galeopithecus volitans ), takes its 
name from a striking resemblance to the flying fox bat. A hair-covered mem¬ 
brane covers its arms and legs as far as the elbows and knees, and when the 
creature spreads out its limbs this membrane serves all the uses of a para¬ 
chute. The flying lemur necessarily has always to fly downward, and when 
be wishes to ascend he folds away the membrane and uses his feet and claws. 
The head is rat-like. 


galago (Galago moholi). 




676 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


The White-tufted Marmoset (. Hapale vulgaris ) has a black head and white 



ear tufts. 

The White-fronted Marmoset (. Hapale humeralifer) is a mixed-brown and 
white, but is distinctly white on the fore part of its body. 

The Barba Variegated Marmoset (. Hapale chrysoleucos ) adds a red tail and 
red hands and feet to the white which colors its body. It is small-sized, has 
pencilled ears and a long, silken coat, and makes a very acceptable pet. 

The Black-headed Marmoset ( Hapalepenicillata) has a white spot on its 
forehead, and uses the same color for the mouth or muzzle; its tail is annulated 

in black of 
a d a rke r 
shade. It 
belongs to 
the ouitilis 


or sagouins 
and is quite 
common in 
monkey- 
cages. 

The 
Pigmy 
Marmoset 
{Ha pale 
pigmaeus ) 
is untufted 
and about 
half a foot 
in length. 
It is a 
brown Bra¬ 
zilian spe¬ 
cies, nota¬ 
ble mainly 
for its lack 

TARSIER. °f size. 

The 

Black-tailed Marmoset, or Mico {Hapale melamnurus), uses even a darker 
shade for its tail than prevails in the coloring of the body; the thighs in front 
are white, and it is banded with the same color across its loins. Its habitat 
is Brazil and the States to the West. 

The White Mico {Hapale leucopus) has its extremities and its fore arms 
white. It is found in Columbia and is about a foot in length, with a tail which is. 
longer than its body. 

The Albino Marmoset {Hapale argenteus ) is the albino variety of the 
black-tailed marmoset. 

The Marmoset {Hapale') has long, soft white and reddish-yellow fur, striped 
distinctly with black. Its long, large, white tail is ringed with black, and its bead- 
black face is set off by long wings or tufts of white hairs which stand erect 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


67 7 


above its ears. In confinement it is active and affectionate, but not very wide 
in the limits of its intelligence. It is insectivorous, and is particularly fond of 
cockroaches. The marmoset species are the smallest of the monkey family, and 
are all peculiar to South America. 

The Tamar in ( Midas Ursulas') has no tuft, and its lips are not white. 
Its bushy tail is much longer than its body, the two together being something 
over three feet. Its color is black, changing here and there to a gray-brown 
or a red-brown. 

The New Granada Marmoset, or Geoffroy’s Marmoset ( Jacchus , or 
Midas geoffroii) ,\s whitish-brown, tuftless, short-haired, and has chestnut color¬ 
ings on its neck and at the root of the tail, which become black at its tip. 

The Two-colored Marmoset {Midas bicolor ) is grayish-brown, changing 
to w T hite in the front. Its tail is black, really adding a third color. 

The Mustached Marmoset {Midas mystax) is a Peruvian species whose 
lip is adorned with long white hairs. 

The Red-bellied Marmoset {Midas labiatus ) is more conspicuous from 
its ventral coloring than for its 
mustaches. It belongs to the 
country of the Amazon. 

The Capped Marmoset 
{Midas pileatus ) wears a cap of 
gold, and the Rufus Marmo¬ 
set {Midas rufiventer ) seems to 
unite the peculiarities of the red- 
bellied and the capped marmosets. 

Its ventral color is distinctly red, 
and the head and neck are marked 
by triangles of red or gold. 

The White-cheeked Mar¬ 
moset {Midas leucogenys) has 
white triangular cheek markings. 

The Yellow-headed Marmoset {Midas Jlavijrons) has the top ot its head 
a brownish-yellow. 

The Pinche {Hapale cedipus) is white on the throat, chest, belly and arms; 
brownish-gray on the body and has reddish markings on the shoulders. The 
long, thick, white hair which, starting from the centre of the head just above 
the eyes, widens out at the top of the head and falls upon the neck and cheeks, 
is a very striking peculiarity and looks as if it were some temporary and acci¬ 
dental ornament of the monkey. It carries a long, well-rounded tail, w’hich 
beginning with a brown color soon deepens into deeper black. Its vocal achieve¬ 
ments resemble the squeaking of a mouse rather than the sounds usually made 

by the monkey tribe. _ . , , 

The Lion Monkey, Marakina, or Silky Monkey, has its face so shrouded 
in hair, and the shape of its head so leonine, that its popular names are more 
than usually descriptive. Its hair is a golden-lustred chestnut, darkening on its 
feet and on its forehead. It is the most cleanly of animals, and any dirtying 
of its fur at once depresses its spirits. It is very active and very timid, and is 
domesticated mainly because of its gentleness and beauty. 



678 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



The Marakina ( Jacchus , or Midas rosalia ,) belongs to the region of the 
Amazon, and wears its hair brushed back from its forehead, like a typical pro¬ 
fessor of music. Its mane and its ruff are likewise quite conspicuous. 

The Black Marakina ( Jacchus , ox Midas chrysome Iasi) is a differently colored 
variety of the marakina. It is about six or eight inches in length, and very 
playful. 


marmosettes. 

The Brazilian Night Monkey {Nyctipithecus trivirgatus) is nocturnal, and 
somewhat of a howler. Its large eyes are surrounded with hair, like those 
of an owl. It passes the day in a sleep so sound that even handling it does 
no more than color its dreams of the night to come. It is quite small, but 
exceedingly quick and active. It is strictly one-wifed, and is never found 
except alone or in the company of its own immediate family. It secretes itself 
during the daytime in the hollows of trees, where for the most part it is undis- 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


679 



turbed. Its color is a silvery gray, lined with brown on the ridge of the back, 
and orange-hued on the breast, belly and inner limbs. It takes its scientific 
name partly from its nocturnal habits and partly from three black lines, two of 
which bind its forehead, while the third runs from the top of the head in its 
centre to the base of the eyes. Its ears are so small that it has been called 
the earless monkey; its other names are the donroucouli , aotes and three-striped 
■monkey. Its voice is variable, as at times it produces a miniature roar like 
that of the jaguar, at another time it spits, and mews, and hisses like a cat, 
and still again barks shrilly like a little puppy. 

The food of the night monkey is almost exclusively of an animal nature, 
and it may with propriety be classed among the insectivora, though it occa¬ 
sionally captures small birds 
when they are nesting. As 
■soon as twilight begins to 
gather over the always deep 
shades of its forest home, the 
night monkey revives from its 
lethargy and soon after issues 
forth on its nightly rounds, 
full of extraordinary activity. 

The large eyes beam like coals 
of fire and the listless limbs 
become instinct with an aston- 
ishing activity. Its agility 
now becomes such that it not 
only leaps with wonderful ani¬ 
mation from tree to tree but 
contrives to catch the swiftest- 
winged insects that make noc¬ 
turnal excursions through t-he 
woods. It is generally very 
restless during the night, but 
will pause on some high perch 
for a few moments and watch 
for prey. So marvellously 
acute is its vision that if a night monkey. 

winged insect comes within 

reach in a trice, and with a movement the eye is not quick enough to follow, it 
strikes out and with such precision that the prey is invariably secured. 

In making its quest for birds, of which it does not appear to be overly 
fond, the night monkey usds no small amount of cunning. Having discovered 
its nest, it takes a position always below and gradually crawls upward, observ¬ 
ing the utmost care in order not to startle the bird that may be sitting thereon. 
Having gained the required closeness to the nest, the monkey raises its fore¬ 
hand slowly above the prey and then suddenly seizes the bird, if she chance to 
be upon the nest, of which he is not certain until he makes the' attack. The 
males are not only monogamous, but exhibit great devotion to their mates 
and young, being rarely seen separated by more than a few yards, and are 
continually manifesting their affection for one another by the most loving caresses. 


68o 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




The Roaring Monkey, or Bellowing Monkey (. Nyctipithecus vociferans), 
though small and harmless, has a deep voice, which to the stranger suggests 
the roar of the lion or jaguar, or the suppressed bellow of the buffalo. Paraguay 

is its habitat. 

The Lemur-like Mon¬ 
key, or Spectral Monkey 
(.Nyctipithecus lemurinus ), be¬ 
longs to New Granada, where 
it steals forth at night and 
utters constant cries as it 
wanders about in search of 
food. 

The Cat-like Monkey 

(.Nyctipithecus felinus , or com- 
mersonii) is found in the Bra¬ 
zilian forests. It is some¬ 
times called the vitoe. 

The Gray Callithrix 
(Callithrix donocophilus ) is 
quite common in menageries 
roaring monkey. and is worthy of no special 

description. 

The Black-footed Callithrix ( Callithrix nigrifons ) has the glossy hair of 
the family, and is distinguishable only by the coloring of its feet. 

The Black-handed Callithrix ( Callithrix melanochir ) wears only a single 
coat of short hair or fur. 

The Brazilian Squirrel Monkey ( Cal¬ 
lithrix , or Chrysothryx ustus ), has a burnt- 
brown color. 

The Bolivian Squirrel Monkey ( Cal¬ 
lithrix , or Chrysothrix entomophagns) , is 
named from its fondness for a diet of in¬ 
sects. 

The Rubicund Saki ( Brachyurus rubi- 
cundus ) is found in the upper Amazon, 
where its various shades of red suggest an 
affliction like Bardolph’s, but one which has 
not been confined to the nose. The red of 
its body becomes a pronounced vermilion in 
the face; its cocoanut-shaped head is entirely 
bald, its body and legs are stout and like 
those of a man; its mouth is drawn down 
with an expression of the most pronounced 
disgust, and its tail consists of an exceed¬ 
ingly hairy ball. 

The Parti-colored Sajou (Callithrix sciurea) is a Peruvian monkey, whose 
reddish-gray coat is marked with chocolate-colored spots. It carries its young 
on its back, and does not appear to be at all embarrassed in its movement. 
When asleep it rolls itself up into a round ball. From its cry it has been called 


BRAZILIAN TITI. 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


681 




the singing monkey , and the ventriloquist; by the natives it is called ouapoussa, 
or ouappo. 

The Death’s-head Monkey ( Chrysothrix , or Callithrix scienreus ,) is black, 
with a tinge of gray; its ears 
and face are white, and the 
mouth and nose a blue-black. 

Its tail is disproportionately 
long, and when the monkey is 
at rest he generally circles it 
about his middle so that he 
looks as if framed in a hoop 
of dead evergreens. 

The Brazilian Titi (Cal¬ 
lithrix per sonata, or sciurea ,) 
is named by naturalists from 
its beautiful hair, which is 
white on the ears, gray on the 
under parts, black at the ex¬ 
tremity of the tail, golden on 
the legs and light olive on 
the body. The titi is small 
in size, exceedingly active 

and affectionate, and always bearded saki. 

wears an innocent, pleading 

expression, which is heightened by its ready use of its tear-glands; its brown 

eyes generally have that ap¬ 
pearance of suppressed tears 
which is always so pathetic. 
Its most marked peculiarity, 
however, is its resemblance to 
the deaf, through its unflag¬ 
ging interest in watching the 
lips of any one who is talk¬ 
ing. Its tail is not prehen¬ 
sile, but is flexible without 
being muscular. The titi , from 
its activity, has been called the 
squirrel monkey , and it may 
not be unserviceable to men¬ 
tion that it is sometimes called 
the saimara , and sometimes 
the tee-tee. 

The Cuxio, Black Cuxio, 
Bearded Cuxio, or Saki (Pi- 
thecia , or Brachyurus satanas ), is 
cowled and heavily whiskered 
and bearded in black, and is 
-vainer of its natural ornament than even the Diana monkey. It is solitary in its 
iabits, or at most lives only with its immediate family. It is quite fierce and 


BLACK HOWLER. 


682 


THE LIVING WORLD. 




its unusually powerful jaws and teeth can do the greatest execution. It sleeps 
in the daytime and prowls about at night. Its long hairs are gray at their 
points of insertion and for some part of their length, and brown the rest of the 
way, so that, as the fur is stirred, the animal may assume any hue which can 

be drawn from 
these compo¬ 
nent colors. 
Its w e 1 1- 
rounded head 
is covered by- 
long, black 
hair scrupu¬ 
lously parted 
in the middle. 

The White- 
headed Saki 
(Pithecia leu- 
cocephala) is 
graceful in 
form and un¬ 
usually sym- 
ursine howlers. metrical in its 

proportions. 

From the top of its head, which is the deepest black, a partial cowl, coming 
off into whiskers and beard extends, and by its excessive whiteness forms a 
startling contrast. The lower part of the throat and chin is orange-colored and 
entirely destitute of hair. It is said to live principally upon wild bees, although, 
it sweetens its repast 
with their honey. Its 
other names are the fox¬ 
tailed monkey and the 
black yarke . 

The Cacajao (My- 
cetes caray a) has aflattish, 
black head and an ex¬ 
tremely short, docked tail. 

It is brownish-yellow in 
color, with a change to 
black for the head and 
front legs. Its three 
inches of tail seem a 
weak ending to its two 
feet of stout body. It is 
scarce, even in its habitat 
on the Rio Negro. It 
is easily domesticated, but always remains shy and timid. The reader may 
find it called, in books of travel, the caruiri , the hideous monkey , the chucuzo y 
or the chucuto. 

The White Acari ( Brachyurus calvus , or Ouarcharia calva ,) is another- 


HAIRY HOWLING MONKEY. 




THE LIVING WORLD. 683 

species, considered a dainty by the natives, and very much resembling the pre¬ 
ceding species. 

The Paranacu ( Pithecia monachus , or hirsuta) is a Peruvian form, which 
wears a rough, thick, gray coat. Its bushy tail is somewhat less than twice as 
long as the body, and in common with the other species of its family, it looks as 
though it had taken a vow never to let a barber touch its hair or whiskers. 

The White Paranacu (. Pithecia albicans ) differs only in color and is most 
notable, perhaps, for illustrating the suddenness with which one passes from a 
district occupied by one variety of monkeys to another, whose occupants are- 
altogether different, at least in their garb. 


CATCHING MONKEYS BY MEANS OF SUGARED COCOANUTS. 

The Red Paranacu (. Pithecia rufiventer ) is red below and its upper coat 
is a blackish-gray, ringed with yellow. It sports a golden-hued mustache. 

The Black Howler {Mycetes car ay a) belongs to the lower coast of western 
South America; its forehead is ornamented with hair, which projects, and 
imparts a bold, uninviting and tousled appearance. Like the rest of its family 
it is prodigally endowed with * sounding-boards, having in addition to the 
largely-developed hyoid bone, two pairs of resonators. Its hair is coarse and 
seems to purchase its great length at the expense of having its under parts: 
almost entirely naked. It is conscientious in the development of what teachers 
of elocution term the “ calling voice,” and as it is not solitary in its habits- 
it manages to make a most deafening noise. 

The Golden Howler (. Mycetes auratus ) is red and yellow in its coloring. 

The Ursine Howler (. Mycetes ursinus ) has a body about three feet in length. 








684 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



and a tail equally as long. It is a golden-red in color and om its long bared 
bead and throat proceed sounds so piercing as never to be forgotten after once 
having been heard. 

The Hairy Howler (. Mycetes villosus) is a South American vocalist, whose 
hairy coat is more than ordinarily abundant. 

The Gray-footed Howler (. Mycetes barbatus) and the Yellow-footed How¬ 
ler is the same species discusssed below under head of preaching monkey. 

The Alqualte, or Araguato (Mycetes seniculus ) is a large-sized South Ameri¬ 
can monkey, whose shaggy head and face suggests that he shaves only on the 
upper lip and chin. Its stentorian voice is increased in volume by a special 
development of the hyoid bone, and it by no means allows its talents to rust 

for want of usage. It is gre¬ 
garious and the troops are very 
large in number, so that when 
they raise their evening song 
the woods and hills and rocks 
resound. It is stated that their 
voices can be heard at the dis¬ 
tance of more than a mile, and, 
in spite of their imitation of 
every known cry and call, that 
the sound is so discordant that 
even persons who are not un¬ 
usually nervous feel as if their 
noise was unbearable. These 
monkeys seem to yell and cry 
in concert and under the di¬ 
rection of a recognized orches¬ 
tral leader. They are hunted 
for their flesh, which, though 
somewhat tasteless, is esteemed 
in a country where, although 
game abounds, man as well as 
animal, is always hungry. The 
natives fill a large nut with 
sugar, and the monkey being 
preaching monkeys. unable to withdraw its hand 

when closed, and unwilling to 
lose its treasure-trove, is as easily taken as a cat shod in nut-shells. 

The South American Howling Monkey ( Mycetes strumineus ) has a body 
of about sixteen inches, which is covered by long, shiny, dirty white hair, while 
its beard and whiskers are tawny. It is believed that its ceaseless howling is 
a performance designed to add in some mysterious way to the creature’s means 
for self-protection. 

The Preaching Monkey (Mycetes beelzebnb) is about the same size as a 
flox and is covered with long, glossy, black hair. It has sparkling black eyes, 
a circular throat-beard, small, round ears, and a very long tail. It is found in 
Brazil and Guiana, where its oratorical performances are an unvarying fea¬ 
ture of each day’s existence. The leader will ascend to the topmost 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


685 


branch of the tree, await the congregating of the other monkeys upon the 
lower branches, and when satisfied he opens the ceremonies by a continuous 
howl. The preacher next waves his hand and the congregation takes up the 
refrain and chants a response. When this has been continued to the end 
of the ritual the leader waves his hand for silence and proceeds to pronounce 
a benediction. 

The Common Capuchin ( Cebus apella ) is small and playful and is fre¬ 
quently kept as a pet. Its head suggests that of a pug dog and all but the 
eyes and muzzle is furnished with an enormous coat of hair, which, on the 
forehead, cheeks and neck, changes from a grizzly-brown to a gray or white. 

The Capped Sapajou ( Cebus capillatus) has the hair of its head long, and 
running in all directions, so that it resembles the odd worsted caps worn by 
young misses. It is very play¬ 
ful, though uneven in temper, 
and in captivity seems to take 
special interest in mechanical 
contrivances, which it invariably 
applies in a manner novel, but 
entirely satisfactory to itself. 

The Weeper, or Sai ( Cebus 
chrysophus) , is a medium-sized 
South American monkey, whose 
constant mood is Niobe-like, “ all 
tears.” 

The Whitish Sai ( Cebus 
hypoleucus ) is differently colored, 
as is also the Olive Sai ( Cebus 
olivaceus ). 

The Curled Capuchin 

(1 Cebus vellerosus) is marked by 
its curly or wool-like hair. 

The Tufted Capuchin 
{Cebus cirrhifer) is a Brazilian 
species, notable for its tuft. It 
is this family, though not so 
frequently this species, which 
furnishes the serious, hard-work- 
ing, melancholy companions of the itinerant organ-grinder. The capuchins are small 
and playful. It readily makes friends, playmates and allies of another animals. 

The Caparras or Negro Monkey {Lagothrix humboldtii), is a less noisy 
howler, found along the Oronoco. Its tail is prehensile, its hair close, thick and 
soft, and it uses its intelligence to devise schemes for pilfering and for gratify¬ 
ing its well-developed gluttonous instincts. 

The Spider Miriki {Eriodes arachnoides ) forms an intermediate species 
between the spider monkeys and the howling monkeys. It is more spider-like 
than the mono, but otherwise does not differ except to the anatomical naturalist. 

The Mono, or Miriki {Brachyteles, or Eriodes hypoxanthus ), is a brown- 
colored, short, thick-furred monkey, which becomes gray on the under parts 
and in’its whiskers and mustache. It is quite large in size. 



686 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


The Black Chameck {Ateles ater ) is Brazilian and distinguished by its 
black face. Domesticated chamecks have been known to jnake friends of dogs 
-and to use them for horseback exercise. 

The Grizzled Coaita (. Ateles gridescens ) has the characteristics and habitat of 
the other coaitas and is known by its grizzled coat. The Hooded Coaita (. Ateles 
cucullatus ) wears a hairy hood on its forehead. The Coaita of Nicaraugua 
(.Ateles albifrons) has a white forehead. The Red-bellied Coaita (. Ateles rufi- 
venter ) belongs to Columbia, is smaller and has a flesh-colored face, while the 
black of its body is in marked contrast with the red of jts under parts. The 
Hairy Coaita ( Ateles vellerosus ) belongs to Vera Cruz, lives at high altitudes, 
and each of its long hairs seems to have a direction of its own. 

The Marimonda (. Ateles belzebuth ), of Guiana and Central America, is 
another of the spider monkeys. It is quite small and slender, its head is diminu¬ 
tive and its tail is almost whip-like. Its color is black, becoming lighter on 
the under parts, and frequently relieved by chestnut color on its sides. When 
resting, it throws its arms back 
of its head. It is easily tamed 
and makes so amiable a pet, as 
to be a great favorite. 

The Spider Monkey or 
Coita {Atelespaniscus ), is another 
South American form, and it is 
so wholly adapted to life in the trees as to 
be almost helpless on the ground. It uses 
its tail not simply for prehensile purposes, 
but likewise as antenna, and when in mo¬ 
tion curls it over its body, so that it pro¬ 
jects in front of its head ; he is said to use 
his tail, as the ant-eater does its tongue, 
and to insert it into the nests of birds, extract¬ 
ing the eggs and conveying them, one by one, 
to its mouth. It is small-sized in body, long 
and spider-like in its hairy legs, and the duc¬ 
tility of its tail adds to its general resemblance 
to a black, hairy spider, as it sprawls about in its climbing. The male, at 
least in captivity, is quite playful, while its mate yields a somewhat reluctant 
assent to its overtures for a romp. Although averse to terrestrial locomotion, 
it will, when necessity compels, walk off on its hind feet, using its tail as a 
reversed rudder, or balancing-pole. Although exceedingly active when so dis¬ 
posed, it is exceedingly fond of its dolce far niente , and numbers of them, almost 
equal to the leaves on the tree, will suspend themselves by their tails and rock 
themselves for hours at a time, until the inexperienced observer would suppose 
that he had not only found an unknown* species of tree, but that he had met 
with the phenomenon of a spectral breeze which agitated the leaves of the tree 
without being otherwise perceptible. This is the monkey whose success in 
transforming himself into a suspension bridge has so often formed the subject 
of popular description and illustration. One of them will fasten his tail to a 
bough, and then a series of monkeys will tie themselves to it and to each 
other until a sufficiently long chain has been formed. Next, they use their 



NEGRO MONKEY. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


687 

powerful muscles to give them the necessary swing, and finally the endmost 
monkey will be able to seize a tree on the opposite bank. The bridge now 
being formed, the troop of unoccupied monkeys run along it, and when the last 
one is safely over, the monkey on the wrong side of the river relaxes his hold 
and the swing is started from the other end. 

The tail of the coaita is about two feet in length, or twice as long as the 
body. The face of this monkey is copper-colored, and its black hair grows to 
great length on the shoulders, thighs and legs. Like some of the monkeys 
already described, the coaita is always ready to assault the traveller or hunter 
with missiles and insulting remarks, using its best efforts to convey the idea that 
it is by nature in open hostility to man, or, at least, prefers his absence to his 
company. 

The Chameck (Ateles chameck ) is found in Brazil and, like other American 
monkeys, illustrates, by its differ¬ 
ence from the forms of the old 
world, that constant and singu¬ 
lar adaptation to environment 
which no theory of accident will 
account for. It has perfectly 
black, long, thick hair, which is 
inclined to kink. Its length is 
about a foot and three-quarters and 
its tail is fully two feet long. 

The last foot or less of the tail 
is hairless, and as the member 
possesses the greatest flexibility, 
and is controlled by numerous 
powerful muscles, it substantially 
renders the chameck and the other 
species' belonging to his family, 
five-handed. It will frequently 
suspend itself wholly by its tail, 
and then swing its body, which 
has a rat-like subtleness, to the 
-next branch or tree. Its nailless 
thumb, like the thumb of other 
monkeys, cannot be opposed to 
the fingers. In captivity, it is 
docile, amiable and playful, and is susceptible of a high degree of cultivation. 
Nor does it appear to be so capricious of temper as most monkeys, for, while 
delighting in any kind of sport, it does not become spitefully tricky even under 
abuse. When subjected to ill treatment it manifests great grief, repairing to 
some corner, where it spends a long while in dolorous exhibitions that will 
excite the pity of any warm-hearted person. Instances are on record where the 
chameck has actually grieved itself to death. Unlike most of the monkey 
species, the chameck does not possess the posterior callosities, but is provided 
with long hair on the hinder quarters instead. The nostrils, too, are peculiar, 
in that they open from the side, whereas in all other species the opening is 
from beneath. 



SPIDER COAITA. 



688 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



The Hebe, or Tartarin ( Cynocephalus kamadryas), is from four to five feet 
in height when erect, and infests the mountainous regions of Abyssinia and 
Arabia. It is covered with long, shaggy hair, except on the legs where it is 
specially short. Its face is long and looks like an unwashed human skin. It 
moves about in large companies, the old males bringing up the rear. It is the 
tot , tota , or thoth of the ancient Egyptians, and it is often found as a mummy. 

The Papion, or Papio ( Cynocephalus papio ), is of various shades of red, 
inclining, however, to a brownish-yellow. On the march the young lead the 
van and reconnoitre, the females occupy the security of a central position, and 
the old males bring up the rear, while officers are appointed to see that no one 

straggles; 
these packs 
will number 
more than a 
hundred. It, 
like other ba¬ 
boons, is most 
common 1 y 
captured by 
the use of 
drugged beer. 
The papio i s 
the common 
baboon, and is 
quite a famil¬ 
iar sight in 
Guinea, where 
it will stroll 
about the 
streets of the 
towns like a 
sailor taking a 
holiday on 
shore. When 
domesticated it 
has been 

mandriu,. taught to drink 

mugs of beer, 

and more reluctantly to smoke a pipe, which protruded between its fawn-colored 
whiskers. Its face, hands and ears are hairless and black, but its eyelids are 
as white as an albinos. 

The Mandrill, or Hobgoblin (Ateles maimon ), belongs to Guinea, and its 
immense size and forbidding appearance are but indications of its ferocious and 
malicious character. Its head looks like that of a hornless buffalo, and termi¬ 
nates in an enormous snout and a wide, thick-lipped mouth. The extremity 
of the snout is a bright red, and its ridges are marked by lines of blue, azure, 
purple and scarlet. It wears a yellow, Shakespearean beard, its hairless ears 
are blue, its under parts are gray, and the upper parts olive-colored tinged with 
brown. All of these colors are most pronounced in hue and look as if the 














THE LIVING WORLD. 




baboons <Cynocephalus babuiu }. 


creature had robbed the goddess of the rainbow of her palette and brushes. 
Its cheek-bones are ridged into pouches and add to the ugliness of the creature 
—at least as tried by the laws of Greek 
aesthetics. Like all the monkey tribe, the 
mandrill is capricious and liable to sud¬ 
den fits of anger, but unlike most of the 
monkeys, he is unforgiving and vindic¬ 
tive after the immediate cause for his 
anger has passed away. It forms with 
its kind a sort of combination of out¬ 
laws, and its strength, cunning and 
fearlessness render it a very much dreaded 
neighbor. It will, in large bands, enter 
a village when the hunters are absent and 
help itself with the utmost disregard for 
the old men, women and children. In 
the woods it is frugivorous and insecti¬ 
vorous, but in captivity it eats almost 
anything. It is teachable and learns willingly to drink beer and spirits, and 
more reluctantly to smoke tobacco. It wears its stump of a tail pointed over 
its back and makes as much use of it in gesticulation as a sidewalk politician 

does of his hand and index 
finger. 

The Drill (Cynocepha 
lus , or Papio leucophoeus ), 
is smaller than the man¬ 
drill, its cheek-pouches are 
smaller, its colors are duller, 
with a predilection for green, 
and its hands and feet are 
copper-colored. 

The Gelada {Cyno¬ 
cephalus gelada) belongs to 
Abyssinia, is maned, brown 
except' on the fore legs and 
the feet, where it is black, 
and with a head ornamented 
like that of the macaques. 
It walks on all fours and 
sits in the way peculiar to 
the most pronounced mon¬ 
key as distinguished from 
a human being. It climbs 
trees and rocks with the 
utmost facility, and ,as the 
GROUP OF baboons. able-bodied creature goes 

about in large-sized crowds, 

it is more than abundantly able to deal with any adversary except a bullet. 
Legs, nails, jaws, and teeth are all brought into play when they engage in battle, 

44 




6qo 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


and woe betide the unlucky hound, or the unwary hunter whom it once gets 
into its power, for it seems to unite the offensive armaments of the kangaroo, 
the bear, the lion and the elephant. 

The Baboons are the ugliest, the most ill-tempered, the fiercest, and the 
most repulsive of the monkey kingdom, so that it is no injustice to them that 
in popular language they have been used as the symbol of extreme ugliness, 
and thoroughly awkward and disagreeable behavior. In all ways they repre¬ 
sent anarchy as against good order, and flourish best where civilized man can 
flourish least. The muzzle looks as if truncated, or suddenly chopped off, and 
the nostrils are located in its very extremity. The baboon is as filthy and 
unseemly in its habits as in its appearance, so that altogether it is not exposed 
to the danger of having its head turned by becoming a popular favorite. 

The Ursine Baboon, Imfena, or Chacma (Cynocephalus porcarius ), has a 
front like that of a bear, is as large as a full-grown wolf, and more than a 

match for any number of or¬ 
dinary dogs. It is the most 
expert of plunderers, and 
sending two or three of its 
number into an orchard the 
rest will fall in line and 
the fruits stolen are passed 
on from hand to hand, until 
when enough has been 
gathered together, all will 
retire amicably to enjoy the 
plunder. They consider the 
laborer worthy of his hire, 
and hence make no objection 
to any quiet bites in which 
the line of battle may in¬ 
dulge while the fruit is 
passing through their hands. 
It is readily domesticated and 
is employed by the natives 
in hunting roots and in find¬ 
ing concealed supplies of water when the drought has been unusually severe. 
It is when tame very playful, and seems specially to delight in teasing any 
one whom it can frighten. In common with many monkeys it is fond of drink¬ 
ing strange mixtures and seems to have a natural appetite for ink. Many an 
amusing incident has happened to those who have had the chacma as a pet. 
When young it seems to be as playful and as light-hearted as a young child; 
it will pet puppies and other small animals, but handles them with the same 
disregard manifested by many a miss in her treatment of cats and dolls. If 
the animal is too persistent in its objections to such rough usage, the chacma 
will fling it away in disgust. The chacma is supposed under ordinary cir¬ 
cumstances to fill out two score years of age. The hunter’s dogs once dis¬ 
covered a baboon sitting in solitary grandeur upon an ant-heap. Driving him 
to bay, he seized the foremost dog and rent it into pieces. The hunter then 
threw his spear which stuck fast in a tree; whereupon the baboon plucked it 



CRESTED BABOON, OR BLACK MACAQUE. 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


691 



out and hurled it back at the hunter. The second spear struck the baboon on 
the arm, and, as he was about to try an imitation, a sudden mortal wound, in¬ 
flicted by another hunter, put an end to the adventure. 

The Sphinx Baboon ( Cynocephalus sphinx ) is a frequent denizen of the 
menagerie and of the zoological garden. It is native to western Africa, 
and is unusually docile and intelligent for a baboon. 

The Babouin, or Babuin ( Cynocephalus babnin ), is as yet but little known. 

The Crested Baboon ( Cynopithecus niger) is an inhabitant of the Philip¬ 
pine Islands, and differs 
from the baboon proper 
by possessing but a 
rudimentary tail, and a 
crested head surmounted 
by a face whose flat 
nose and bristling brows, 
quite as much as its 
black color, justify our 
calling it not only 
“ niger,” but “ nigger.” 

It is gregarious, and 
as a band descends from 
the trees the sight 
in'ght well terrify one, 
who if not like Ajax 
“ afraid in the dark ” 
is capable of being star¬ 
tled by the dusky ap¬ 
paritions, even though 
in size they do not ex¬ 
ceed that of a bull- 
terrier. These creatures 
are very destructive to 
the fruit raisers and 
gardeners, whose pro¬ 
ducts these marauders 
descend upon in the 
night and sometimes 
destroy whole fields of 
ripening fruit or vege¬ 
tables. MACAQUES. 

The Dog-monk¬ 
eys ( Cynopitheci ) are tailless, have round, rimmed ears, and an elongated face. 
The Celebean species wear a head-dress strongly suggestive of the feathers 
assigned to the Indian of the books, and has its face fringed with long hair. 
It is mild but lively in its disposition. 

The Macaque ( Macacus ) is an oriental baboon or monkey, and is quite 
abundant 'in India and the East Indian Islands. 

The Common Macaque (. Macacus cynomolgus) has a round head from 
which the face protrudes, and this, in turn, is distinguished by the prominence 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


692 



claimed by tbe eye-brows. Its tail is twice as long as in the satyr, but it 
compensates for this superiority by lacking the tuft. .Some varieties of this 
species lack the tail, or have it in merely a rudimentary form. It is hardy, 
and does not suffer from confinement, so that it can generally be found in 
zoological gardens, and its appearance is thus rendered familiar. 

The Tailless Macaque (Macacus niger ) lives upon the rocks and feeds 
upon mollusks, crustaceans, insects or vegetable life. 

The Tailed Macaque is a denizen of the forest. While quite young the 

macaque is gentle and 
teachable, but after a few 
years its disposition 
seems to undergo a 
change, caused, perhaps, 
by its trials and disap¬ 
pointments. 

The Munga, or 
Bonneted Macaque 
(Macaque sinicus) is a 
long-tailed species, clad 
in brownish-green, with a 
whitish shirt front. It 
parts the hair on the 
forehead in the middle, 
but brushes back the rest 
of its capillary adorn¬ 
ment. Its habitat is 
Ceylon, but it is fre¬ 
quently imported, and is 
relatively hardy and able 
to endure a change of cli¬ 
mate. Its face is flesh- 
colored, its body olive and 
gray above and white 
beneath. It is larger than 
the green monkeys, has a 
much shorter tail, is more 
muscular, and the’ callosi¬ 
ties or hardened spots 
hamadryas ( Cynocephaius hamadryas^. on its hind legs are quite 

decided. The munga be¬ 
longs to the sacred monkeys of India, and it may be that the ready attention and 
obedience with which he meets at home will explain the sullenness, and surli¬ 
ness, and spitefulness which the specimens occupying our monkey cages generally 
exhibit. In India, the temple of the monkeys is inhabited mostly by this species, 
and hundreds of them meet the visitor in expectation of the propitiatory offer¬ 
ings which he is required to bring for them as well as for the priests whose 
lives are devoted to their service. 

The Bunder Monkey, or Rhesus {Macacus rhesus ), is another sacred mon¬ 
key of India, the natives in some districts going so far as to pay tithes to it. 





693 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



It is a short, stout-bodied animal, with a mere excuse for a tail, and callosities 
specially prominent because of their colors. Green, orange and yellow contend 
with each other m coloring the hair, though the back is brown, and the arms 
dun-colored beneath. It is naturally free from shyne’ss, and possessed of the 
most insatiable inquisitiveness, and these qualities seem to be developed by the 
veneration in which the natives hold it. 

It can leap many feet, and that even though encumbered by its young, 
and overloaded with the results of successful expropriation. It is mischievous 
and pranksome, and like some other species does not hesitate to hurl missiles 
as well as objurgations. One traveller tells of the liberties taken by a pack of 
bunder monkeys. He says that 
while in camp he was suddenly 
informed that a pack of bunders 
had taken possession of the sur¬ 
rounding trees, whence they made 
constant descents, as one coveted 
object after another attracted 
their attention. The loss of tur¬ 
bans, spears and other ordinary 
possessions had not greatly dis¬ 
turbed the natives, but when the 
bunders began amusing themselves 
with the horses and cattle, the 
natives thought it high time to 
communicate with “ the central 
office ” before a stampede should 
have been initiated. The travel¬ 
ler taking his gun, shot one bun¬ 
der as an example, and the lesson, 
though a surprise, proved to be 
sufficient. Still, the hunter was 
compelled to withstand on the one 
hand the superstitious fears of 
the natives, and on the other the 
pathetic spectacle of the wounded 
bunder coming directly to him for 
medical aid, which proved useless. 

On another occasion several offi¬ 
cers were put to death by the natives for killing a bunder. 

An ingenious scheme of a European farmer or planter is to be found 11 in 
the books.” Knowing that he did not dare kill the bunders , and not being will¬ 
ing to raise crops for their benefit solely, he caught quite a number of the 
young ones, and having covered them with a mixture of syrup and tartar 
emetic, set them free and started them to rejoin the rest of the pack. The 
whole tribe now engaged in licking up so well-tasting a repast, and when the 
aftermath came it at once and forever deserted a neighborhood where the cooks 
poisoned the food. The bunder is jealous, envious, spiteful and malevolent, and 
sight-seers about our monkey cages will do well to identify him, and remain 
upon the most distant terms of acquaintance. Another peculiarity in the appear- 


THE GEEADA. 










694 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


ance of the bunder, is the looseness of its skin, and its bagginess about the 
throat. 

The Gibraltar Magot (Inuus ecaudatus ) is really only a naturalized citizen 
of Gibraltar, as its real habitat is the Barbary States. It prefers to pass its 
life on the rocks, where it moves about in large packs, seemingly under the 
guidance and rule of a single, absolute monarch. The magot is very powerful, 
active, nimble, quick-sensed and ingenious. Like most monkeys, it dreads the 
panther and its relatives, but is more irritated than frightened if approached 
openly. It is about three feet or less in length, gray in color, eyes sunk under 
prominent brows, which set off a roundish, heavy, dog-like head, which is sup¬ 
ported by a short, thick neck: altogether its appearance is fierce and formidable. 
If captured when young it displays great intelligence, and readily learns new 
tricks; but as it grows older, and its captivity becomes more grievous, it is apt 
to sink into a lethargy, or at least exhibit all the signs of a broken spirit, and 
of a heart bowed down with woe. In a state of freedom it is frugivorous and 
insectivorous, but in captivity it becomes omnivorous. When eating, it carefully 
examines each separate insect or article of food, and adds to the grimaces and con¬ 
tortions of other monkeys that of sucking in its cheeks. It moves about on all 
fours, but rests in the same attitude as that of a person occupying a chair, and sleeps 
either lying at length on its side or sitting on its haunches, with its head reposing 
between its hind legs ; its tail is so rudimentary as to be almost a mere symbol. 

The Black Macaque ( Cynocephalus niger ) belongs to the Philippine Islands, 
and bears some faint resemblance to the magot. It is, however, much larger; 
its prominent eyebrows extend like a rubber band beyond the eyes, the face is 
elongated so that it looks like that of the true ape, and its head is ornamented 
by a crest of long hair which, though noticeably erect, keeps pointing back¬ 
ward. It is stout and muscular, but differs from the other species in appear¬ 
ance rather than in habits and characteristics. 

The Bruh, or Pig-tailed Macaque ( Macacus nemestrinus), belongs in habi¬ 
tat to Sumatra, and even among the many ingenious species of monkey, distin¬ 
guishes himself by his cleverness. It is trained by the natives to gather cocoanuts 
from the lofty palms, and to discriminate with the greatest nicety the choicest 
fruit of the tree. It is of medium size, mainly fawn-colored, with browner shades 
on the top of the back and head, on the sides to a small extent, and on the 
uppermost side of the tail, which is short and curved like that of a pig. It is 
exceedingly cunning, inquisitive and mischievous and will concoct the most 
subtle schemes for coming into possession of any article of wearing apparel, 
which it destroys after having amused itself in its examination. 

The Wanderoo ( Silenus veter) is classed with monkeys by some, and with 
baboons by other naturalists; it resembles the baboon in having a bushy tail, 
and for our purposes may be regarded as a convenient form of transition from 
the monkeys. It is called by the natives the neelbunder, and it is spoken of 
by travellers as the bunder. Its head and face are surrounded by long, bushy 
hair, looking like a combination of a judge’s wfig and an enormous pair of 
false whiskers; this capillary ornament is entirely white, so that it lends 
the most comical appearance of undisturbed dignity and seriousness to the 
monkey’s melancholy countenance. It avoids the habitations of man, and seems 
to have selected the calling of some mediaeval ascetic. In captivity it is very 
capricious, but grows increasingly ill-tempered as it gets older* 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


695 

The Gelada ( Cynocephalus gelada ) is an Abyssinian creature whose singu¬ 
larly profuse hairy adornment distinguishes it above all the macaque species. 
Its prevailing color is brown, with lighter hue on the crown. Its manner of 
progression is on all fours, having a swaggering walk and moving in a gallop 
when running.. When sitting it seems almost enveloped in a mantle of very 
long coarse hair and presents a rather forbidding appearance, notwithstanding 
its rather benign countenance. The mantle is confined to the neck and shoulder, 
the hind quarters and limbs being covered with short hair. In size it is equal 
to the chacma. 

The Tailed Apes ( Cercopitheci ) furnish most of the useful servants em¬ 
ployed by the itinerant organ-grinder, whose ubiquity seems unlimited, and whose 
apathy and narrowness of musical range are wearing upon any but children, 
who disregard the . less intelligent man, in their enthusiastic interest in the 
appearance and antics of the monkey. 

The Green 
Monkey ( Cerco¬ 
pithecus sabceus) 
has hairs in which 
the colors black, 
yellow and blue 
alternate so fre¬ 
quently as to pro¬ 
duce the effect of 
green. It is liber¬ 
ally endowed in 
the matter of 
c heek-po uches, 
which it uses as 
larders for storing 
away food until it 
is needed for con¬ 
sumption. 

The better-fed 
American or Euro¬ 
pean traveller finds 

roast monkey a rather tasteless dish. The deep melancholy which the faces of 
monkeys always express, has rendered sportsmen disinclined to shoot an animal 
whose flesh they do not care for, and whose pleading eyes, pathetic looks and 
dying moans seem to them too human to be agreeable as a recollection. The 
natives, like their wild dogs, wolves, hyenas' and jackals, are always hungry, 
and rudely thrust away all sentimentality when the question is one of appe¬ 
tite, and the green monkey accordingly serves them as a popular article of diet. 

The Variegated Monkey ( Cercopithecus mono) is sometimes imported, and 
manifests all the cunning and fondness for imitation which “is the badge of all 
his tribe.” It has the same habits and habitat as the green monkeys, but the 
green of its coat is varied by white, maroon and gray. 

The Red Monkey ( Cercopithecus ruber ) is larger, and the red, which is its 
prevailing color, becomes cream-colored on the legs. It belongs to the Senegal 
fauna. It is gregarious and combative, following the hunter by leaping from 



GREEN MONKEYS. 







696 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


tree to tree, and Hurling at him every available missile while it scolds away as 
a further means of offence, or as a relief to its highly-wrought feelings. It is 
not an nnfrequent denizen of our monkey cages, and is exceedingly active and 
ingenious, though its humor is distinctly spiced with malevolence. It is specially 
resentful of mimicry or ridicule, and treasures its wrongs in a memory remark¬ 
able for its tenacity. On one occasion at least, it was so offended at a small boy, 
who thoughtlessly undertook to imitate its gestures and chattering, that whenever 
afterward he approached the cage it had a paroxysm of fruitless fuj*y, until 
after about a year, it found an opportunity of seizing his hat and tearing it to 
shreds with the most marked manifestations of anger and contempt. 

The Diana (Cercopit,hecus diana ) is specially notable from wearing a long, 
pointed, cavalier-like beard of white, and like the unusually long-bearded among 
men, it is very vain of its hirsute appendage, and devotes much time to caress¬ 
ing it and keeping it spotless and undefiled. Did it live where it could know 
of and purchase a mustache cup, it would be quick to procure one, for when¬ 
ever it drinks it is most particular about pushing back and protecting its much- 
prized beard and whiskers. Its forehead is marked by a white crescent, whence 
probably its being named after the goddess of the moon. Its coloring is a rich, 
deep-chestnut above, separated distinctly and sharply from the bright orange 
color below, by a band of the purest white. The eyes and legs are gray, and 
the hands and feet are quite black. These colors are each so pronounced and 
the hair is so glossy as to fit the diaiia monkey to enter into rivalry with the 
most gorgeous of the feathered tribe. It is four or five feet in length, and the 
body and tail divide this length about equally. It is easily domesticated, but 
in spite of its scrupulous cleanliness (in which respect it finds but little emula¬ 
tion among the monkeys), it has not as yet ceased to be rare in our collections. 
Its habitat is the Congo and vicinity. 

The Sooty Mangabey ( Cercocebus fuliginosus ) likewise belongs to western 
Africa. It is less irritable than most monkeys, is easy to tame, and makes an 
amusing, even though mischievous, pet. It is only about a foot and a half in 
length, and might in a London fog easily be mistaken for the stunted and 
shrivelled children who pass their lives in removing soot from the chimneys 
of their more prosperous fellow-beings. The sooty mangabey is specially addicted 
to wearing the most pronounced and constant grin, and adds to its peculiarities 
by curling its tail along its back toward its head whenever it goes forth for a 
promenade on foot. It is frequently to be found in monkey cages, and its 
passion for being noticed will soon call attention to it, while its apparent bone¬ 
lessness enables it to perform feats and to indulge in contortions whose reward 
is none too great if these excite the enthusiastic admiration of the observer. 
It is fond not merely of “ keeping itself before the public,” but of any glittering 
objects, such as jewelry, and will exhibit much cunning in its efforts to secure 
the coveted object. It is black in color, but pink callosities gleam from the 
midst of the black fur. It is treated by other species of monkeys as though its 
venerable appearance was but the outward symbol of qualities entitling it to 
the most profound respect and esteem of the whole monkey kingdom. It fills 
its cheek-pouches before it breaks its fast, seemingly with reference to unforeseen 
and unwelcome interruptions. 

The Burmah Macaque ( Macacus arctoides) has a red face and a dark- 
brown coating. The Thibetan Macaque {Macacus thibetanus ) is short-tailed 


THE LIVING WORLD. 697 

and woolly-coated; and the Ochre Macaque [Macacus ochreatus) is an ash-col¬ 
ored, short-tailed species. 

The Black Hocheur ( Cercopithecus melanogenys) has its nose ornamented 
with white hairs; and the Samango ( Cercopithecus samango ) has its nasal 
ornament of the same color as the body. 

The Black-templed Hocheur ( Cercopithecus erxlebenii ) has black streaks 
on its temples. 

The White-collared Mangabey ( Cercocebas collaris ) differs only in mark¬ 
ing from the sooty mangabey. 

The Japanese Red-faced Macaque (. Macacus speciosus ) has the charac¬ 
teristics, but not the marking of the other ?nacaques. 

The Collared W/Lite-eyelidded Monkey ( Cercocebus cEthiopP* belongs to 
western Africa, and differs from the sooty mangabey in having white mus¬ 
taches, a white neck-tie, and brown as the color of the upper part of its 
head. 

The Hocheur [Cercopithecus nictitans ) belongs to Guinea, and its large, 
white nose makes a singular contrast to the olive-spotted black, which prevails 
throughout the rest of its coloring, excepting only its white or gray side- 
whiskers. 

The Little White-nosed Monkey ( Cercopithecus petaurista) has a body 
less than a foot in length, black hands and feet, and grayish-brown for its gen¬ 
eral coloring. Like the hocheur it belongs to the fauna of Guinea. 

The WLite-throated Monkey ( Cercopithecus albogzilaris) belongs to Mada¬ 
gascar, and is distinguished by the marking of its throat. 

The Grivet ( Cercopithecus grivet ) is dark-green, with legs and tail 
inclining to gray, while the ears and soles of the feet are a violet-black.. 
It sports side-whiskers. It is found in Abyssinia, and the way in which its 
canine teeth protrude renders it noticeable amidst “ the wilderness of monkeys ” 
to be found in Africa, where it is often called the tota. It is medium sized, 
and quite active in its movements and habits. 

The Beautiful-haired Monkey ( Callithrix ) belongs to Senegal, where it 
is frequently domesticated, and whence it has often been exported. It belongs 
to the green monkeys. Its under parts are white, the outside of its legs and 
thighs gray, and its whiskers the most golden yellow. 

The Vervet ( Cercopithecus pygerrythrus ), like the callithrix, belongs to the 
fauna of Senegal, where the trees will be fairly alive with immense troops of 
this bright-eyed little monkey. Its canine teeth project, and its coloring is 
various—most frequently resembling the grivet, with the exception that it is 
likely to be dun-colored on the head, throat and breast. It resents the presence 
of man, at whom it will continue to scold and throw small branches, even 
though it sees its companions being shot down at its side. The vervet is fre¬ 
quently to be seen in the monkey cages of our menageries and zoological 
gardens, and is one of the most active and amusing of the monkey tribe. 
This monkey, like some others, is hunted by the natives for his flesh, which 
they hold in high esteem. 

The Maned Monkey, or Colobus ( Colobus ), is African in its habitat, 
and its long, silky, valuable covering renders it exceedingly handsome—for a 
monkey. It takes its name from having only rudimentary thumbs on its fore¬ 
paws. 


698 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



The Bear Colobus ( Colobus ursznus) is small in size and prevailingly black 
in color; its head, cheeks and chin are surrounded by long, white hair, which 
reappears on the thighs, and on the tail, which, white throughout its whole 
length, terminates in an abundant tuft. 

The Black Colobus ( Colobus satanas ) is dressed throughout in glossy black, 
and its black crest and whiskers add to the uncanniness which has suggested 
its being named from its impish or demon-like appearance ; it wears a long, thick, 
pendent, yellow mane. 

The Angola Colobus 

(1 Colobus angolensis) is, like 
the rest of its family, very 
handsomely apparelled. It 
is clothed in a brilliant, 
short, black fur, and begin¬ 
ning with a narrow line at 
the base of the forehead, 
short, white hair covers the 
cheeks, neck and fore part 
of the body, and after 
passing the shoulders, 
grows into long, pendant, 
silken fringe, hanging from 
the sides. The tail termi¬ 
nates in a large, silvery 
plume. The gleam of this 
silvery sheen as the animal 
leaps from bough to bough 
is exceedingly beautiful. 

The Zanzibar Colo¬ 
bus ( Colobus kirkii ) is 
white beneath, ruddy above, 
and black on the back of 
the neck and on its legs. 
Its hair seems to -form a fur 
cap for the top of its head. 

The Bay-colored Col¬ 
obus ( Colobus ferrugineus ) 
belongs to Sierre Leone, 
parti-colorrd colobus (Colobusguerza). and is distinguished only 

. for its color. 

The Parti-colored Monkey, or Guerza ( Colobus guerza ), is Abyssinian 
in habitat, and the black of its upper parts suddenly changes on the sides to 
an equally pronounced white ; the cheeks, forehead, and the tuft of the tail 
likewise are furnished with a white framework, or are themselves suddenly 
changed to white. 

The Kahau, or Proboscis Monkey (Presbytes laureatus) is Bornean, and 
has a wealth of nose, which resembles a proboscis, from which characteristic the 
animal takes its name. It is gregarious and very noisy, exchanging the ordinary 
chattering for a most unmistakable howling. It is of a rich chestnut color, 




PROBOSCIS MONKEY 


(699) 



































700 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


which on the under parts of the body, on the shoulders and on the face becomes 
a true golden. The nostrils do not, as in man, run the length of the nose, but 
seem to be mere slits at its extremity. It is said that in making its immense 
leaps from branch to branch, and from tree to tree, that the kahau always holds 
up one hand as a protection to what the poet called “ a most unlikely feature, 
but mine own, sir.” 

The Proboscis Monkey ( Semnopithecus nasalis , or larvatus ,) belongs to 
Borneo, lives in large troops in the trees which skirt the banks of the rivers, 
resembles a shrivelled, bowed, long-nosed, little old man or woman, and is sacred 
in the eyes of the natives. Its noisy outcries, malignant disposition and fond¬ 
ness for irritating mischief, seem to add a fresh illustration to the truth that the 
uncivilized animal nature is perfectly unfit for the government of self or of others. 

The Proboscis Monkey f Nasalis larvatus ) is only about two feet in length, 

and the tail claims “ the 
larger half” of this. 
Its color is a dark 
chestnut, but its face 
markings are blue and 
red. It is frugivorous 
and peculiar to the 
fauna of Borneo. 

The Hoonuman, 
or Entellus (. Presby¬ 
ter entellus , or sem¬ 
nopithecus) , exceeds the 
simpai and the negro 
monkey in size, being 
about eight feet in 
length, equally distri¬ 
buted between the body 
and the tail. It is at 
first gray in color, with 
brown lines on back 
and loins, but with in¬ 
creasing age changes to 
black. The hoonuman is the sacred monkey- of India, and like the Sacred 
Brahma Bull has learned that he has “ the freedom of the city,” and like the 
bull uses his opportunities to their fullest extent. He mingles freely with the 
natives, not that he values social intercourse with them, but simply because they 
furnish opportunities for his amusement or profit. He is fond of shopping, and it 
is always understood that his purchases can be charged only as an offset to the 
faults and follies of poor humanity. His demands are rendered none the less 
exorbitant by the fact that for him to have a handful requires a provision four¬ 
fold as great as for a human being. The banyan-tree, so familiar an illustration 
in school geographies, is a favorite resort of the hoonuman or entellus , and his 
numbers seem a sufficient excuse for its branches bending to the earth, and 
having taken root to furnish yet further support to the parent tree. No one is 
without enemies, so in spite of the veneration accorded by man to the hoonuman , 
the serpent—man’s earliest and most irreconcilable foe—is specially harmful and 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


701 



inimical to tlie hooniwnan. It is not, however, an unresisted tyranny, for when¬ 
ever a hoonuman finds a snake asleep, it at once seizes it by the back of the 
neck, drags it to the ground, and puts it to death with the utmost refinements of 
torture, slowly grinding off its head against the edge of some sharp stone or 
rock; nay, more than this, after death has befallen the snake, the hoonuman 
treats its lifeless remains with contempt and tosses them to make sport for iti 
young. It will 
follow tiger- 
hunters, and is 
frequently use¬ 
ful in pointing 
out the hiding- 
place of their 
game. It has 
learned that it 
is perfectly safe 
in the pres¬ 
ence of man, for 
its position as a 
sacred being 
protects it as 
fully as the law 
in the most 
highly civilized 
communities 
guards against 
the commission 
of murder. Still 
further, the doc- 
trine of the 
t r ansmigration 
of souls, so com¬ 
mon in some of 
the ancient phi¬ 
losophers, and 
popularly 
known through 
stories of the 
Egyptians, adds 
to the sacred 
ness of its per- 

son. . 

The Lungoor (. Semnopitkecus schistaceus ) is a sacred monkey, belonging to 

the mountain districts of Nepaul. 

The Negro Monkey, Moor, or Budeng (. Semnopitkecus maurus ), is jet- 
black, and its long silken hair furnishes most of the. monkey-fur which from 
time to time receives the imprimatur of fashion. It is difficult to tame, and 
not very agreeable or amusing when domesticated. It ranges the woods of Java 
in companies of forty or more, and keeps up the most constant and noisiest 


gibbon (Hylobates lar). 





THE LIVING WORLD. 


702 

chattering. Some of the family secrete in their stomachs a substance called 
bezoar and an essential part of an Oriental pharmacopoeia. It is sometimes 
called the bezoar moiikey from this fact. When young it is reddish-yellow and 
gradually changes to black. 

The Gibbon (. Hylobates) is considerable in size, having a stature of quite three 
feet. Its head is small and round, muzzle short, face pleasant in expression. 
It is wrapped in dark fur which is relieved in part by white. Its arms and hands 
are unusually long and out of proportion to the body. It is frugivorous, gentle, 
intelligent and marvellously supple. It is readily domesticated, in which state 
it is very affectionate. 

The Mourning Gibbon (. Hylobates funereus) is black with a change to 

ashen gray on the outside of its arms and legs, which are covered with long hair. 
* * The Silver 

Gibbon (. Hyloba¬ 
tes leuciscus) is 
silver-g ray in 
color, changing to 
black on the face 
and the palms of 
the hands, and to 
white in the bushy 
hair and whiskers 
which cover its 
head, cheeks and 
neck. Its height 
rarely exceeds 
three feet. 

The Cinder Gibbon [Hylobates cinereus ) belongs to Java and takes its 
name from the color of its hair. It is gentle, affectionate and easily domesticated. 

The Simpai [Presbytes metalophors ) is long-tailed, its arnjs are delicate and 
well-proportioned, and hands slender, and is most distinctly four-footed in its 
locomotion. In color it is a light chestnut-brown intermixed with golden tints, 
changing to gray on the under parts. Its form is slight and graceful, and its 
foot and three-quarters of length is increased by some three feet of tail. The 
black hair on its head, cheeks and neck resembles a fur hood and has given 
rise to its popular name of the black-crested monkey. Its habitat is Sumatra, 
whose fauna receive such frequent mention. 

The Wou-wou [Hylobates agilis) is of fair stature—about four feet—and 
but for the excessively long hands and fingers its body would be not unlike 
that of a human being. There is a great variety in the heads of persons, but 
even one who is not a craniologist will at once perceive the wide gulf which 
separates them from the patterns used by the monkey tribe. The cocoanut- 
s’haped head of the wou-wou has a low forehead, from which it retreats until 
it reaches a peak or table-land. The eyebrows project, its nose is broad and 
flat, its mouth a long, thin slit, and its chin quite short. Its long, fine hair is 
chocolate-colored, the back and thighs tending towards yellow. The face of 
the male is dark blue and is furnished with white whiskers and a white band 
above the eyes. Sumatra is the habitat of the wou-wou , where it is often called 
the ungaputi and the active gibbon. 



POSITION OF THE GIBBON WHEN S' 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


703 



The Siamang (.Hylobates syndactylus ) is Sumatran in its habitat, and is 
covered with short, black hair, except upon the upper breast, which is bare. It 
takes its scientific name from the fact that a membrane connects the upper 
joints of the first and second fingers or toes on the hind feet; the hands are 
narrow and the fingers slender. It wears two throat-pouches which, when 
excited, it puffs out with air. In the early morning and the early evening the 
siamangs gather in great crowds and engage in a shouting and crying tourna¬ 
ment. The siamang is harmless, indeed almost unable to inflict harm. In the 
family economy, the males are entrusted to the care of the father, and the females 
to that of the mother, and, 
were the young as much 
inspired as Cowper, they 
would lack no opportunity 
for the celebration of their 
parents’ scrubbing powers 
*and unpleasant fondness 
for being assured of the 
cleanliness of their young 
children. The siamang 
is tailless, and when do¬ 
mesticated, affectionate and 
playful, although v e r y 
mischievous. Those that 
have been in captivity dis¬ 
play the greatest sensi¬ 
tiveness to any attempts 
at ridicule, feeling, like 
most professional humor¬ 
ists, that their own pro¬ 
vince was being invaded. 

The Apes (. Simiadce) 
are without the callosities 
which ornament the hinder 
parts of other monkeys ; 
they are tailless, and have 
no cheek-pouches or 
plumpers. 

Of the apes, the 

Cynocephali or Dog orang-outang. 

Headed variety have the ,, , 

muzzle of a dog, and the callosities on the thighs are brilliantly blue or red. 
They are quadrupedal in their locomotion, stand, when erect, from two and a 
half to three feet, and are characterized by ferocity, audacity, malignancy, love 
of mischief, brutality and viciousness. Of course, this is as they appear to 
mankind, and doubtless they do not echo Burns’s refrain. 

At one period they fairly swarmed in Sweden, and the trees are said to 
have been covered with them. In Arabia they rob the natives of all kinds of 
fruits vegetables and nuts, and keep posted the most vigilant sentinels. At 
the Cape of Good Hope they are so fierce that one species has earned the appel- 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


704 






lation of man-tiger. The wounds which they infkct are deep and dangerous r 

and emphasize the fierce¬ 
ness which they uni¬ 
formly display. Th e 
Gibraltar species is tail¬ 
less. 

The Orang-Outang 

{Simia satyrus ) is one of 
the animals whose name 
can so easily be mis¬ 
spelled, as philology seems, 
to delight in making con¬ 
stantly fresh experiments, 
in attempting to express 
in English the gibberish 
of a savage tongue.* 
. Whether or not the orang¬ 
outang is the original of 
the satyrs celebrated in 
mythology, and thence 
passing into the imagi¬ 
native literature of every 
hunting the orang-outang. people, he certainly can 

be used to give bodily substance to these poetical fictions. Asia is the habitat 
of the orang-outang, and he espe¬ 
cially affects Sumatra and Borneo. 

The inhabitants of Borneo call the 
orang-outang, mias, mias-pappan, or 
pappan. Like the gorilla, it is soli¬ 
tary in its habits, and seems to find 
pleasure in meditating upon subjects 
which increase its gloominess and 
sullenness. It is almost helpless on 
the ground, as it is compelled to 
walk on its hands and on the out¬ 
side edge of its feet. But once in 
the trees, its length and muscularity 
of fore-arm enables it to swing along 
with a rapidity, grace and ease truly 
surprising. Indeed, its capture is 
possible only by cutting down trees, 
so that the orang-outang is finally 
confined to a single one, which is 
then felled. The color of this crea¬ 
ture is reddish-brown, the face blue 

and red-bearded, the hair long and HAND AND FOOT OF <*rang- 
abundant on breast, arms, face and 
back. The orang-outang is about half a foot shorter than the gorilla, and wears 
the singular air-pouches which belong to the monkeys. This receptacle, how- 


HAND AND FOOT OF 
CHIMPANZEE. 



THE LIVING WORLD. 


7°5 



ever, is not used for respiration ; it is fingered like a glove and serves some use 
not yet definitely known, although it has been suggested that it may increase 
his levity when swinging through the air. The orang-outang , when young, is 
easily tamed and is quite an amusing pet, but should it not meet an early 
death from consumption, and failure to become acclimated, it grows intractable 
and savage with increasing years. In its natural state it is frugivorous, but 
in captivity learns to be omnivorous, and in particular grows passionately fond. 
of spirituous and fermented liquors. In the woods it shows great fondness, 
for cocoanuts whose shells it is able to crush. This same power, partly mus- 


BORNEJANS CAPTURING AN ORANG-OUTANG. 

cular and partly mental, renders it an adept at opening any bottles which it 
may find while in a state of captivity. 

The ora 7 ig-outang is found in Borneo, Java and Sumatra, where it is com¬ 
monly called the wild ma 7 i of the woods. Its height is about four feet, its arms 
particularly muscular, and so long that when standing erect, it can touch the 
ground with them, and legs correspondingly short and weak. His success as 
an acrobat might lend support to the belief that he was the original trapezist. 
The hair is coarse and reddish, and thick except about the fore parts. The face 
is blue and for the most part naked; the eye-brows are bushy and prominent; 
the palms of the hands are hairless, and the creature sports mustache, chin- 
beard and side-whiskers. The ears are small, the muzzle long and thin, the nose 
flat, the lips remarkably extensible, and the creature indulges in what among 
45 









706 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



corpulent men is called a u bay window.” As the animal grows older the fore¬ 
head becomes depressed and the creature atrophied. The head,, which inclines 

forward, is set on a thick 
short neck, which in turn 
is re-enforced by a pouch 
which extends beneath 
the arm-pits. He makes 
a bed every night, and 
when the weather is in¬ 
clement, he erects a tem¬ 
porary roof. It is timid 
and inoffensive, but if 
provoked too far is a 
dangerous enemy, 
although it never uses 
its teeth in the conflict. 
When pursued it utters 
the most dolorous cries, 
but to which the natives, 
who are fond of his flesh 
and use his skin for hel¬ 
mets and caps, are en¬ 
tirely deaf. 

The Mias-kassar is 
a smaller, slighter, less 
dangerous species of the 
orang-outang, but is 
found in the same lo¬ 
calities. 

The Chimpanzee 

(Pithecus t r og lodytes) 
rankes highest among 
the quadrumana. It is 
called engecko by the na¬ 
tives, (whence the familiar 
name jocko ,) and some-, 
times the quimp e z e e 
(whence chimpanzee '). 
An African traveller 
found a native chief, who, 
after having feasted upon 
the flesh, had from su¬ 
perstitious reasons made 
a garden, whose rare 
plants consisted of the 

FAMILY OF CHIMPANZEES. skulls of Qne hundred 


and eighteen chimpanzees. 

The Black Chimpanzee ( Troglodytes niger) belongs to Guinea. Its face is 
larger and flatter than that of the orang-outang; its ears are large and shaped like 










the living world. 


707 


WG e a i hum , au bein f; the kead > shoulders and back are covered with long black 

'f> S have e alves and the chimpanzee can easily walk on its hind legs, 

hair g narted Z T “ * s tailless and pouchless, and wears its 

its nJl 4 d K1 T mi f dl f’ Ita hairless face is copper-colored and wrinkled, 
eoln Tt ' b ack ’ and the P alms of its hands and its fingers are copper in 
feet its 1 ey?S ar - S ’, na ’ su " ken % and hazel in color; its height is about four 
teet, its cranium is depressed, and its forehead not entitled to be called even 
retreating since it is a mere ridge-like projection. As it grows older it 
becomes less and less amiable, and its physical degeneration is quite marked. It 
lives, or at least congregates, m groups and is much given to throwing stones ht 
the travellers, or using the branches as missiles. For the most part it is frugi^o- 
rous, but to a very small extent it is insectivorous. It interweaves leaves and 
branches for the sake of furnishing itself with a comfortable bed. The natives 
regard U as a man dumb through choice lest it share their curse of labor. 

., Th( ; , T d Chimpanzee ( Troglodytes calves ) adds to the luxury of its home 
the most elaborated leafy screens. 

The Chimpanzee has the same habitat as the gorilla, to which it seems to 
be nearly allied. Its color, like that of the gorilla, is black, but it ornaments its 
nose with a few 
white hairs, 
and which give 
its face some 
resemblance to 
that of the Chi¬ 
nese. Its muz¬ 
zle projects at 
the expense of 
its nose which 
is unusually 
flattened. Un¬ 
like the gorilla, 
the chimpanzee 




POSITIONS OF THE ORANC-OUTANG WHEN WALKING. 


is social and gregarious instead of being sullen and solitary, and as it is widest 
awake at night and much given to exhibitions of its vocal powers, the silence of 
the forest is often broken by its cries. The chimpa?izee is not as a preference 
arboreal although climbing is not difficult to it. It prefers to find caverns or open¬ 
ings in the rocks where it builds huts for the occupancy of its family, but the male 
refuses to enter, keeping guard on its roof as if he were fearful of the stifling atmos¬ 
phere of his tenement house, and prefers a continuous existence in the open air. 
The chimpanzee in captivity has always proved amiable and docile, but soon suc¬ 
cumbs to consumption, which is the prevailing disease among the monkey 
tribes. The chimpanzee , unlike the gorilla, can act in co-operation with his kind, 
and it seems no mere accident that this power should have been restricted to the 
species which is certain not to combine for injury to mankind. The chimpanzees 
always keep sentinels posted, which are never untrue to their trust, but utter a 
warning cry at the least appearance of danger. Like the gorilla, the chimpanzee 
fears none of the animal kingdom except the leopard, for which it has the great¬ 
est aversion (possibly because it is arboreal), and when one is pursued by 
hunters, it will follow from tree to tree scolding and vilifying its enemy in a 
manner exhibiting the greatest excitement and fury. 



7o8 


THE LIVING WORLD. 



The Gorilla (Troglodytes gorilla) has its habitat in the west of Africa, 

is the largest of the simiadce , and 
for many reasons the most inter¬ 
esting to the naturalist, and the 
most exciting to the popular im¬ 
agination. For much more than 
two thousand years explorers and 
navigators had told of a wild 
man of the woods, but it is only 
recently that this singular crea¬ 
ture has been identified. The 
immense size, relatively erect po¬ 
sition, and imitative habits of the 
gorilla may well account for his 
having been mistaken for a wild 
man by those in the midst of 
constant dangers, and who na¬ 
turally endeavored to relate every 
new object to their ordinary and 
familiar experiences. The myths, 
of the ancient Phoenicians, Greeks, 
Romans, Egyptians and Cartha¬ 
ginians were not mere fabrications, 
but mistaken and imaginative ac¬ 
counts of actual experiences. These 
myths were first actual beliefs, 
then popular superstitions, then the 
material for poetic illustration, 
next the scoff of those who be¬ 
lieved their knowledge to be ex¬ 
act and final, and at length the 
subject of scientific investigation, 
as supplying the confused notions, 
of times past in regard to actual 
existences and happenings in the 
world of nature. The gorilla has 
not as yet become possessed of 
the spirit of the scientific move¬ 
ment, so that he does nothing to 
decrease the difficulties in the way 
of making a study of him and his 
habits. His habitat is limited in 
extent, and so distant from our 
great commercial and literary cen¬ 
tres as to multiply the obstacles 
in the path of the enthusiastic 
naturalist. Then, again, Xhegorilla , 
without being in the least timid, pre¬ 
fers to dwell afar from the haunts of man, selecting the deepest parts of the jungle 


SKELETON OF THE GORILLA. 









THE LIVING WORLD. 


7°9 


that, like the American poet, he may find “a solitude where none intrudes.” 
Furthermore, he is so British in his political economy as to resist violently 



male *Gorilla. male gorilla alarmed. 


and somewhat effectually any invasion of his personal rights, among which he 
seems greatly to esteem the sanctity of 
his domestic privacy. His breadth of 
shoulder, powerful muscles, long arms, 
immense and well-furnished jaws, to¬ 
gether with his pugnacity, fearlessness 
and tenacity of life, qualify him ex¬ 
tremely well for resisting effectually any 
ordinary attack, and suggest to all but 
the devoted naturalist, or the irrepressible 
sportsman, that it is more expedient to 
hunt other animals than to make game 
of the gorilla. It is no uncommon ex¬ 
perience for a native to suddenly find 
a hand thrust forth from the branches 
of a tree and himself in clutches which will never relax until he be 



POSITION OF GORILLA WHILE RETREATING. 




THE LIVING WORLD. 


710 



killed. The gorilla has but a small brain, and would seem to- enjoy but a 
limited range of intelligence; but within his limits of cunning and muscularity 
he is unapproachable. His imitative powers are not complete, for though he 
will collect ivory, following an example of the natives, he has not sense enough 
to lay it down, but will frequently exhaust his strength by aimlessly carrying 
about a heavy and useless load. It will stir up a deserted camp-fire and sit 
by its light and warmth, but it never occurs to him to put on fresh fuel. It 
will build huts in imitation of the work of man, but it will then stay on the 
outside. It will carry about its sick child, but if the child dies it will never 

think of laying 
it down, or of 
burying it. It 
will gather its 
plunder into 
bundles after the 
manner of the 
farmer, but if it 
makes these too 
heavy, it will 
never think of a 
remedy. 

The gorilla 
is in color black,. 
or grizzly black, 
wearing a coat 
whose hair is 
somewhat more 
than two inches 
in length, and 
which on the 
arms and legs 
runs down from 
shoulder to el¬ 
bow, and up the 
rest of its length. 
Though its eyes 
are naturally 
brown they be¬ 
come very green 
under the effects 
femai,e goriela with young. of excitement 

and add to an 

appearance which is exceedingly dreadful and repulsive. Its paws and fingers 
are large-sized and enormous in their muscular power, and the hind ones 
have the use of the thumb very much like the hands of a human being. 
In size it is nearly three feet across the shoulders, more than five feet tall 
when erect, and the body, excluding the legs, is about two and a quarter feet 
in length. The gorilla is not gregarious in his habits, but usually solitary; 
like the criminal classes among mankind, whom the gorilla resembles in malig- 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


711 



mty, brutality and entire surrender to passion and appetite, he does not know 
enough or has not faith enough to enter into combination with his fellows. 

. The gorilla is believed to have been referred to by Hanno and other 
ancient writers, whose allusions were unintelligible or ridiculous until Du 
Chaillu re-discovered the animal. Its habitat is lower Guinea, or the Gaboon 
district of Africa, and its fierceness, savageness, extraordinary strength, and its 
constant effort to shun as well as to resist human companionship, has pre¬ 
vented that continuous study of its woodland habits which might simplify the 
discussions which turn upon the gorilla as the missing link. 

In stature it varies from four to six feet, and is distinguished by the 
length and width of 
its face, the devel¬ 
opment of its lower 
jaw, and the pos¬ 
session of an elevated 
orbital arch. Its nose 
is flat, its eyes sunk¬ 
en, its ears small, 
and its mouth large. 

The neck is thick 
and short, the shoul¬ 
ders exceedingly 
'broad, the chest mas¬ 
sive and sounding 
like a deep base drum 
when the gorilla, in 
his wrath, strikes his 
fists upon it. Its belly 
is large and expan¬ 
sive. It is sometimes 
brownish-black in 
color, though some¬ 
times an iron-gray, 
while the palms of 
the hands and the 
naked face are of a 
deep black. The 
male sleeps on the 
ground, lying on its 
back; the female takes her rest in the trees. It uses both paws and feet 
for walking, is swift, frugivorous, nomadic and solitary, except being devoted 
in its family relations, keeping close to the female and young, so that occa¬ 
sionally as many as half a dozen may be seen together. 

Its hearing is unusually acute; its chest is its “ tendon Achilles,” and the 
hunter who fires and misses is generally lost, for with a single blow the 
creature can annihilate a man. When fatally wounded it utters a dying cry 
of anguish whose humaneness is so great as to haunt the hunter. 

Of monkeys as a class many interesting characteristics may be predicated, 
and endless stories possessing interest have been told. For example, monkeys 


male gorilla covering the retreat of his young. 







712 


THE LIVING WORLD. 


have been detected keeping the flies off from their sleeping yonng. So, too, 
their social attachments can be illustrated by the fact that fifty monkeys pur¬ 
sued a hunter who had killed one of their companions, and scolded and plead 
until he allowed them to carry back the lifeless body. Towards each other they 
are sympathetic and most attentive and gentle in their ministrations to the 
sick. On one occasion at least, when a monkey was bitten by an ill-natured 
baboon, it was immediately coddled by a monkey of a wholly different species. 
One of two monkeys on shipboard fell overboard, when the other first held out 
its hand, and finding this ineffective caught up a rope and threw one end of it 
to his drowning campanion. A hunter having fired into a band of monkeys to 
still their noisy chattering, fatally wounded one of their number, which at once 
descended to the ground, and holding its hands went directly to the hunter, as 

by its reproachful looks to 
induce him to repair inju¬ 
ries so unprovoked. Un¬ 
satisfied curiosity is very 
trying to the monkey. One of 
them failing to discover any¬ 
thing behind a mirror into 
which it was looking, dashed 
it to pieces and then repeated 
the action with each fragment 
large enough to renew his cu* 
riosit } 7 and re-awaken his an¬ 
ger. A monkey which had an 
ulcerated tooth refused to 
take an anaesthetic but cheer¬ 
fully submitted to the den¬ 
tistry. Many species of mon¬ 
keys manifest the greatest 
interest in mechanical de¬ 
vices, and much skill in the 
application of their prin¬ 
ciples. They have, when 
in confinement, shown an 
acquaintance with the prin¬ 
ciple of the lever, screw and 
wedge. 

By the many manifestations of an intelligence certainly superior to that 
of other animals, no less than the human appearance which many of the higher 
primates exhibit, we have come to regard the monkey family as next to our 
own, though there is a gulf between the two infinitely wider than that which 
separates the other orders of animal life. For this reason, in following the 
ascending series of animate creation, we are compelled now to halt for want of 
a bridge over which to pass to another sequential order. Man stands alone, iso¬ 
lated from all other species, and “The Story of Man” is therefore reserved for 
a work which I have prepared with much care, to prove that, like others of 
God’s creatures, since his fall he has developed from a very low condition to 
the attainment of such intellectual powers ns now distinguish him. 



V 



LOWER 

INVERTEBRATES. 

Argonauta, 21-27. 
Argonauta, 27. 

Argonauta, two-gilled, 27. 
Argonauta, paper, 27. 
Asthenosoma, 36. 
Astrophyton, 38. 

Antedons, 40. 

Angelus, 45. 

Astocus, 47. 

Bellamites, 25. 

Brittle Star Fish, 37. 

Bird Coralline, 39. 

Bugula, 39. 

Botryllus, 41. 

Barnacles, 42. 

Coronet, 42. 

Goose, 42. 

Bolones, 42. 

Corals, 20. 

Cephalopoda, 21. 
Cuttle-fish, 27. 

Cardium, 34. 

Canatula, 39. 

Cristalella, 39. 

Clausilea, 40. 

Clypeaster, 41. 

Cyprea. 41. 

Crenilabus, 44. 

Cyclops, 44. 
Canthrocarpoid, 44. 
Crangon, 45. 

Caprella, 46. 

Crawfish, 47. 

Crabs, 47. 

Shell, 47. 

Hermit, 48. 

Diogenes, 51. 

Robber, 51. 

King, 52. 

Spider, 52. 

Porcupine, 53. 

Frog, 53. 

Death’s-head, 53. 
Woolly, 54. 

Crested, 54. 

Armed, 54. 

Fighting, 54. 


Edible, 55. 

Mussel Shell, 40. 

Squilla, 43. 

European, 55. 

Mytilus, 41. 

Leaf-shaped, 44. 

Worm, 55. 

Mussel Crab, 44. 

Opossum, 45. 

Black, 56. 

Maia, 52. 

Sea Mouse, 46. 

One-Eyed Sailor, 56. 

Fresh Water, 47. 


Nautilus, 21-25. 

Edible, 47. 

Decapoda, 28. 

Numullites, 25. 

True, 47. 

Discophora, 39. 

Nereis, 46. 

Sea Trumpet, 44. 

Dendronotus, 41. 

Neptunus, 55. 

Sea Hare, 44. 

Dromia, 53. 

Octopus, 28. 

Skeleton Screw, 46. 

Echinoderms, 35. 

Oniscus, 45. 

Teredo, 20. 

Edible Mussel, 41. 

Triton, 44. 

Edible Prawn, 45. 

Polypes, 21. 

Pearly Nautilus, 28. 

Trilobite, 46. 

Feathered Star, 39. 

Pluteus, 37. 

Uplysia, 44. 

Fish Lice, 42. 

Phos. Tunicate, 38. 


Frog Crab, 45. 

Poecilopoda, 42. 

Periwinkle, 44. 

Wall Worm, 45. 

Giant Octopus, 28. 

Paloemon, 45. 

FISHES. 

Garden Snail, 33. 

Prawn, 45. 


Gill-foot, 44. 

Pagurus, 48. 

Auneatarius, 62. 

Gammarus, 47. 


Apodes, 66. 

Gecarcinus, 52. 

Rhizo, 40. 

Amblyopidae, 68. 

Gelasimus, 54. 


Angler Fish, 72. 

Sepia, 28. 

Alopias, 75. 

Helix, 33. 

Squids, 32. 

Angel Fish, 76. 

Heart Mussel, 34. 

Loligo, 3 3. 

Accipenser, 85. 

Hemiaster, 37. 

Common, 33. 

Amiurus, 87. 

Hair Star-fish, 39-40. 

Dotted, 33. 

Anchovy, 89. 

Hyalea, 41. 

Snails, 34. 

Argentinidce, 90. 

Homarus, 47. 

Swimming, 40. 

Anabas, 103. 

Mouth-Closing, 40. 

African Salamander, 109 

Jelly-fish, 39. 

Sea Urchins, 35. 


Leather, 36. 

Batrachus, 61. 

Kraken, 29. 

Marsupial, 37. 

Black Goby, 62. 

Purple Heart, 37. 

Blind Fish, 68. 

Lithophytes, 20. 

Sea Cucumber, 35. 

Balloon Fish, 81. 

Loligo, 33. 

Star-Fish, 35. 

Blue Fish, 94. 

Lepas, 42. 

Snake Star. 37. 

Bat Fish, 94. 

Litorinia, 44. 

Shetland Argus, 38. 

Bonito, 98. 

Lobster, 47. 

Sun Star, 38. 

Black Bass, 102. 

Lerncea, 55. 

Solaster, 38 

Betta Pugnax, 103. 

Salpa, 38. 

Blennius, I05. 

Mollusca, 20. 

Sea Nettle, 39. 

Bakena, 115. 

Anthoid, 20. 

Spondvlus, 40. 

Cabitis, 68. 

Ordinaire, 20. 

Shield Porcupine, 41 

Finny-leg. 41. 

Sand Flea, 43. 

Chimsera, 72. 

Grape, 41. 

Shrimps, 43. 

Carcharinus, 73. 

Medusa Head, 38. 

Fairy, 43. 

Cetorhinus, 75. 

Moss Animal, 39. 

Mantis, 43. 

Clarius, 86. 

( 713 ) 
















INDEX. 


Catfish, 87. 

Stone, 87. 

Blind, 87. 

Bull Head, 87. 
Horned Pout, 87. 
Mississippi, 87. 
Lake, 87. 

Channel, 87. 
Electric, 87. 
Cup-bearers, 87. 

Carp, 88 
Cyprinus, 88. 

Cottus, 89-104. 
Clupea, 90. 
Coryphoena, 99-1II. 
Chetaedon, ill. 
Cutlass Fish, ill. 
Chelmon, III. 

Coral Fish, 100. 
Cyclopterus, 103. 
Climbing Perch, 103. 
Chiasmodon, 104. 
Codfish, 105. 
Cirrhosomus, 109. 
Cetacea, 109. 

Dog Fish, 80. 
Doradinae, 87. 
Dolphin, 99. 

Drum Fish, 100. 
Diplodus, 101. 
Dactyloptera, 105. 
Dab, 107. 

Dolphin, hi. 
Dugong, 124. 

Eels, 66. 

Lamprey, 64. 

Fresh Water, 66. 
Conger, 66. 
Muraena, 67. 
Electric, 67. 
Eurypharynx, 86. 

Eel Pout, 86. 
Engraulus, 89. 

Esox, 92. 

Ephippus, loo. 

Eagle Fish, 100. 
Enneacauthus, 102. 
Eyed Pteraclis, 109. 

Frog Fish, 61. 

Flying Fish, 68. 
Herring, 69. 
Swallow, 69. 
Gunard, 69 
Father Lasher, 89. 
Fly Shooter, 99. 
Finnan Haddies, 106. 
Fistularia, 107. 

Gymnotus, 67. 
Gunard, 69. 

Gronias, 87. 
Gymnarchus, 88. 
Gobio, 89. 

Gudgeon, 89. 

Gars, 85. 

Pike, 85. 

Alligator, 85. 
Grayling, 91 
Golden Mackerel, 97. 
Growling Cock, 104. 


Gadus, 105. 

Globe Fish, 109, 

Hypophthalmidae, 87. 
Herring, 90. 
Haplodinotus, 101. 
Haddock, 106. 

Hake, 106. 

Hallibut, 106. 
Hippoglossus, 106. 
Halicore, 124. 

Ictalarus, 87. 

King of Herrings, 72. 

LophiuS, 61. 

Lamprey, 64. 

Lancet Fish, 70. 

Lophius, 72. 

Lepidosteus, 85. 

Lucky Proach, 89. 
Lutjanus, 101. 
Lucioperca, 102. 
Lump-fish, 102. 
Lump-sucker, 103. 
Lagenorhynchus, III. 

Mud Whipper. 68. 
Myxine, 71. 

Monk Fish, 76. 
Malaptururus, 87. 
Malthe, 94. 

Moon Fish, 96. 
Mackerel, 96 
Micropterus, 102. 

Mullet, 104. 

Mullus, 104. 
Melanogrammus, 106. 
Merlangus, 106. 

Manatee, 123. 

Nest-building Fishes, 60. 
Nocturus, 87. 

Naucrates, 96. 

Narwhal, no. 

Northern Sea Cow, 123. 

Orcynus, 98. 

Ocean Sun Fish, 101. 
Ocean Butterfly, 105. 
Ocean Blenny, 105. 

Oar-fish, 105. 

Ostracion, 107. 

Orca, 109. 

Piraya, 63-88. 
Periophthalmus, 88. 
Puffer, 81. 

Pristis, 82. 

Pelican Fish, 86. 

Pikes, 92. 

Common, 92. 

Pickerel, 92. 
Muscalonge, 93. 
Pomatomus, 94. 
Pompano, 96. 

Pilot Fish, 96. 

Porgy. 99. 

Pogonias, 100. 

Pike Perch, 102. 

Parrot Fish, 102. 

Perea, 102. 


Pumpkin Seed, 102. 
Pollock, 106. 
Pollachino, 106. 
Phycis, 106. 

Plaice, 107. 

Psetta, 107. 

Platessa, 107. 
Protopterus, 109. 
Porpoises, no. 

Bay, no. 

Atlantic, no. 
Phocoena, no. 
Physeter, 112. 
Phoca, 126. 

Rock Fish, 62. 
Rhina, 76. 

Remora, 79. 

Rays, 80. 

Bordered, 81. 
Thornback, 81. 
Electric, 81. 

Sting, 84. 
Clear-nosed, 81. 
Whip, 85. 

Red Snapper, 101. 
Roccus, 101. 
Regalecus, 105. 

Sticklebacks, 60. 

Sun Fish, 63. 

Slime Fish, 71. 
Sea-Cat, 72. 

Sharks, 73. 

White, 73. 

Great Pilgrim, 74. 
Nurse, 74. 
Mackerel, 75 - 
Thresher, 75. 

Dog, 75. 

Blue, 75. 

Basking, 75. 
Swell, 75. 

Cat, 76. 

Tiger, 76. 

Angel, 76. 

Cow, 79. 

Eel, 79. 

Scyllium, 75. 

Sea Hound, 75. 
Stegostoma, 76. 
Somniosus, 79. 

Saw Fish, 82. 
Skates, 84. 

Tobacco-Box, 84. 
Smooth, 84. 
Barn-Door, 84. 
Sturgeon, 85. 

Sterlet, 85. 

Sheat Fish, 87. 
Silurus, 87. 
Seyphophori, 87. 
Serrosalmo, 88. 

Sea Barbel, 89. 
Suckers. 89. 

Sword Fish, 89. 

Sailor, 89. 

Sprat, 90. 

Smelt, 90. 

Salmon, 91. 

King, 91. 
Blue-black, 91. 
Silver, 91. 


Dog, 91. 

Hump-backed, 91. 
Saw Perch, 94. 
Serranus, 94. 

Sea Devil, 94. 

Scomber, 96. 

Sarda, 98. 

Surgeon Fish, 100. 
Scirnna, 100. 

Sea Chub, 100. 

Sheep’s Head, 101. 
Scuppang, 101. 

Striped Bass, 101. 
Scaridae, 102. 

Sea Hare, 102. 
Swallower, 104-105. 
Sculpin, 105. 

Sea Raven, 105. 

Sting Bull, 105. 

Snipe Fish, 108. 
Sea-horse, 108. 
Sea-unicorn, no. 
Sirenia, 122. 

Seals, 126. 

Crested, 126. 
Hooded, 126. 
Ringed, 126. 
Bearded, 126. 

Harp, 126. 

Ribbon, 126. 

Hair, 126. 

Trumpet, 127. 
Marbled, 127. 
Sea-dog, 127. 
Sea-elephant, 130. 

Toad Fish, 61. 
Torpedo, 81. 
Trichomyteridae, 87. 
Thymallus, 91. 

Trout, 91. 

Rainbow, 91. 

Salmo, 91. 

Brook, 91. 
Trachynotus, 96. 
Tunny, 98. 

Trichiurus, 99. 

Toxotes, 99. 

Talipia, 102. 

Tautog, 102. 

Trigla, 104. 

Trachinus, 105. 

Turbot, 107. 
Tobacco-pipe, 107. 
Trunk Fish, 107. 
Tetraodon, 109. 
Trichechus, 124. 

Vomer, 96. 

White Fish, 63-91. 
Weak Fish, 100. 
Whiting, 106. 

Whales, 109. 

Straight-finned, 109. 
Sperm, 112. 

Rorqual, 113. 

Gray, 115. 
Hump-backed, 115. 
Sulphur-bottom, 115. 
Razor-back, 115. 
Greenland, 115. 
Bonnet, 115. 





Whales. 

Right, 115. 

Bowhead, 115. 

Walrus, 124. 

Xiphias, 89. 

Yellow Perch, 102. 

REPTILES. 

Alytes, 137. 

Amphisboena, 146. 
Amblystoma, 152. 
Axolotl, 152. 

Alligator, 167. 
Ancistrodon, 179-202. 
Achochorde, 182. 
Anaconda, 183. 

African Cobra, 196. 
Adder, 203. 

Ring-necked, 204. 
African Puff, 204. 

River Jack, 206. 

Berg, 206. 

Horned, 207. 
Spreading, 208. 
Actractospis, 207. 

Asp, 208. 

Batrachia, 133. 

Bufo, 139. 

Blind Worm, 147. 
Basalisk, 149. 

Basilicus, 149. 

Belodon, 163. 

Boa Constrictor, 185-187. 
Boiguacu, 187. 

Bull Snake, 209. 

Black Snake, 209. 

Ceratophrys, 137. 
Chameleo, 141. 
Chlamydosaurus, 150. 
Crypto, 153. 

Crocodiles, 159. 

Nile, 164. ( 

Double Crested, 166. 
Marsh, 166. 

Gavial, 167. 

Margined, 167. 
Cayman, 167. 

Chittul Sea Snake, 180. 
Coral Snake, 181. 

Carpet Snake, 186. 

Cobra, 192. 

Crotalus, 197. 
Copperhead, 202. 
Common Viper, 203. 
Clotho, 206. 

Cerastes, 207. 

Coluber, 209. 

Chicken Snake, 210. 

Corn Snake, 210. 
Chelonia, 211. 

Chrysemys, 217. 

Chelydra, 217. 

Chelys, 219. 

Chelonia, 221. 

Draco, 141. 

Dicynodon, 163. 
Dog-head Boa, 186. 
Daboia, 204. 


INDEX. 


Eyed Sea Snake, 181. 
Echis, 204. 

Emys, 214. 

Frogs, 133. 

Bull, 136. 

Tree, 137. 

Spring, 137. 

F ¥ n g» ^ 37 - 
Pond, 137. 

Horned, 137. 

Nurse, 137. 

Rope, 139. 

Painted, 139. 
Solitary, 139. 

Pouch, 139. 

Fer-de lance, 202. 

Gila Monster, 156. 
Glass Snake, 208. 
Ground Snake, 2x1. 
Glyptodon, 213. 

Hyla, 137. 

Haloderma, 156. 
Hydrophis, 180. 
Hamad ry as 196. 

Haje, 197. 

Heterodon, 208. 
House Snake, 210. 
Hydromedusa, 218. 

Iguana, 142. 
American, 143. 

Slate Colored, 144. 
Plorned, 144. 
Ichthyosauri, 160. 
Indian Viper, 204. 

Jacara, 167. 

King Snake, 209. 

Lacertiliae, 140. 
Lizards, 140. 

Flying Gecko, 141. 
Flying Dragon, 141. 
Chameleon, 141. 
Iguana, 142. 

Hedge, 145. 
Metallic, 146. 
House, 146. 

Pale Snake, 146. 
Frilled, 150. 
Basalisk, 149. 
Spotted, 152. 

Green, 152. 

Waran, 152. 

Debb, 152. 

Monitor, 145. 

Mud Eel, 153. 
Megalosauvus, 161. 
Mesosaurus, 161. 
Moccasins, 179. 

Water, 179. 

Black, 179. 

Swamp, 179. 
Malacoclenemys, 217. 
Matamata, 219. 

Ophidia, 174. 

Oculus, 181. 
Ophibalus, 2x0. 


Pipa, 138. 

Phrynosoma, 139. 
Ptychozoon, 141. 
Pseudopus, 146. 

Proteus, 148. 
Protonopsis, 151. 
Plesiosaurus, 160. 
Pterodactyl, 162. 

Pelamis, . 80. 

Poisonous Reptiles, 191. 
Pelias, 203. 

Pityophis, 209. 
Pseudemys, 217. 

Rana, 136. 
Rhachophorus, 137. 
Rock Snake, 185. 

Ringed Boa, 186. 

Rattle Snakes, 197. 
Diamond, 199. 
Banded, 199. 

Horned, 199. 

Prairie, 200. 

Ground, 201. 

Skink, 146. 

Scincus, 146. 

Seps Chalcidica, 147. 
Slow Worm, 147. 
Siphonops, 147. 

Siren, 153. 

Salamander, 153. 

Giant, 153. 

Yellow, 153. 

Fiery, 155. 

Dotted, 155. 
Red-backed, 156. 
Two-striped, 156. 
Purple, 156. 

Sea Snake, 180. 

Spitting Snake, 196. 

Toads, 137. 

Banded, 137. 

Surinam, 138. 

Wart, 138. 

Garden, 139. 

Horned, 139. 

Two headed Snake, 146. 
Teleosaurus, 163. 

Tortrix, 181. 
Trigonocephalus, 202. 
Ticpolonga, 204. 
Tortoises, 211. 

Lettered, 214. 

Chicken, 214. 
Salt-water, 215. 

Box, 215. 

Wood, 216. 

Elegant, 216. 
Speckled, 216. 
Soft-shell, 219. 
Painted, 217. 

Snake, 218. 

Terrapins, 217. 
Salt-marsh, 217. 
Yellow-belly, 217. 
Alligator, 217. 
Trionyx, 219. 

Testudo, 150. 

Turtles, 220. 

Hawk’s-bill, 220. 
Green, 221. 


Loggerhead, 222. 
Trunk, 222. 

Luth, 224. 

Leather, 224. 

Greek, 155. 

Lip, 155. 

Wallowing Worm, 147. 
Water-dog, 151. 
Water-moccasin, 179. 
Wart Snake, 182. 

INSECTS. 

Atax, 230. 

Araneidae, 231. 
Ant-Lion, 238. 
Acrididae, 239-241. 
Ateuchus, 246. 

Alpine Goat Bug, 248. 
Agriotus, 248. 

Asilidte, 254. 
Anthocharis, 260. 
Alucita, 261. 
Acherontia, 262. 

Antia, 262. 

Asopia, 265. 

Aletia, 266. 

Ants, 266. 

Aculeatte, 267. 

Blattidte, 239. 

Bed-bug, 243. 

Beetles, 243. 

Bibio, 247. 

Blaps, 247. 

Beetles, 249. 

Brilliant, 249. 

Bacon, 249. 

Wool, 249. 

Sand, 249. 

Hunting, 249. 

Pestle, 249. 

Leather, 249, 
Swimming, 249. 

Stag, 250. 
Rhinoceros, 250. 
Magnificent, 250. 
Tiger, 251. 
Shardborne, 251. 
Linden, 251. 
Seven-dotted, 251. 
Burying-bug, 249. 
Buprestis, 250. 
Brachinus, 251. 

Bet-fiy, 254. 

Bat-tick, 256. 

Blow fly, 256. 

Buffalo Gnat, 256. 
Black-fly, 256. 
Butterflies, 258. 
Admiral, 259. 
Many-eyed, 260. 
Theckla, 260. 

Aurora, 260. 
White-flecked, 260. 
Great Ice Bird, 260. 
Metallic Wing, 260. 
Checkered, 260. 
Swallow-tail, 260. 
Apollo, 260. 
Leaf-shaped, 260. 
Bombyx, 263. 








716 

Beech Spinner, 263. 
Bees, 266. 

Bumble-bee, 272. 
Bombas, 272. 
Mason-bee, 274. 
Ground bee, 274. 
Wall-bee, 274. 
Leaf-cutter, 274. 
Carding bee, 274. 

Centipedes, 228. 
Chilopoda, 228. 

Caddis fly, 229. 
Cochineal, 229. 
Cteniza, 234. 

Citax, 236. 

Cross-myriapod, 237. 
Cicadae, 242. 

Crickets, 242. 
Candle-fly, 242. 
Colorado Beetle, 243. 
Calandra, 243. 
Coleoptera, 243. 
Cryptipentamera, 245. 
Crepidera, 245. 
Coptocycla, 245. 

Corn-weevil, 245. 
Calandaria, 245. 
Cucuja, 247. 

Glerus, 248. 

Claviger, 249. 

Carabus, 249. 
Cicindella, 249. 

Culex, 252. 

Cattle fly, 254. 

Carpo, 262. 

Demodex, 236. 
Drassus, 237. 
Dragon-fly, 237. 
Doodle-bug, 238. 
Devil-horses, 239, 
Death Simulator, 249. 
Dermestes, 249. 
Dytiscus, 249. 

Dynasta, 251. 

Diptera, 252. 
Daddy-long-legs, 254. 

Earwig, 229. 

Epeira, 237. 

Ectobia, 239. 
Ephemeridae, 240. 
Erebus, 266. 

Fulgoria, 242. 
Flour-beetle, 243. 
Fire-fly, 244. 

Flea, 257. 

Formicidae, 267-268. 

Geophilus, 229. 
Galeodes, 234. 
Glomeus, 234. 

Gryllidae, 239-242. 
Grasshoppers, 241. 
Grain-weevil, 243. 
Garden-beetle, 247. 
Grapevine Sucker, 248. 
Gnat, 252. 

Gallinippers, 253. 

Gad fly, 254. 


INDEX. 


1 Gastrophilus, 255. 
Gall-fly, 256. 

Geometra, 262. 

Hagria, 249. 

Hister, 249. 

Hessian-fly, 254. 

Horse fly, 254. 

House-fly, 255. 

Hepialus, 261. 
Heliophila, 266. 
Humble-bee, 272, 
Honey-bee, 272. 

Ichneumon-fly, 229. 

Julus, 236. 

Lycosa, 234-236. 
Libellula, 237. 
Little-devils, 238. 
Leaf-bug, 238. 

Locustidge, 239-240. 
Lystra, 242. 

Lady-bug, 245. 

Lytta, 247. 

Lampyris, 247. 

Lamia, 248. 

Lucanus, 250. 

Limenitis, 260. 
Lasiocampis, 263. 

Myriapoda, 228. 
Macrobiotus, 235. 
Milleped, 236. 

Mormoly, 238. 

Mantidae, 239. 

May-flies, 240. 

Mole cricket, 242. 
May-bug, 246. 
Melolontha, 246. 
Mourning-bug, 247. 
Meligethes, 249. 
Mosquito, 253. 

Musca, 256. 

Melitsea, 260. 

Melanargia, 260. 

Moths, 258 260. 

Bee, 260. 

Cabbage, 261. 

Gamma Eule, 261. 
Pine, 261. 

Hopspinner, 261. 
Twelve-feathered, 261. 
Blood Drop, 262. 
Green Leaf, 262. 

Apple Winder, 262. 
Brown Bear, 262. 
Linden, 262. 
Death's-head, 262. 
Oak-leaf, 262. 
Oak-egger, 263.. 
Beech-spinner, 263. 
Humming Bird, 265. 
Grain, 265. 

Melon, 265. 

Meal, 265. 

Canker, 265. 

Cotton, 266. 
Single-dotted, 266 
Io, 266. 

Tobacco, 266. 


Nygate, 234. 

Necrophorus, 249. 
Noctuidae, 266. 

Obisium, 236. 

Orthoptera, 239. 
Oleander-fly, 254. 

Oestrus, 254. 

Pamopida, 228. 

Phalangium, 235. 
Pentastomum, 237. 
Phasmidae, 24c. 

Plant lice, 243. 

Potato-bug, 243-245. 
Phosphorescent Beetle, 247. 
Pehdnota, 248. 

Parti-colored Ant-bug, 248. 
Pulex, 257. 

Polyommatus, 260. 

Papilio, 260. 

Parrassius, 260. 

Phyllium, 260. 

Paeniocampa, 261. 

Pluria, 261. 

Saw fly, 229. 

Scalopendra, 229. 

Shell-mite, 230. 

Scorpion, 230. 

Spiders, 231. 

Mygale, 232. 

Mason, 232. 

Crab, 233. 

Bird 233. 

Wolf, 234. 

Mining, 234. 

Cylindrical, 234. 
Marginated, 234. 

Velvet, 234. 

Wall, 235. 

Ribbon-linked, 236. 
Tarantula, 236. 

Skin 236. 

Black, 236. 

Harlequin, 237. 

Garden, 237. 

Beetle, 237. 
Stone-dwelling, 237. 
Scolopendra, 236. 

Salticus, 237. 

Scutigera, 237. 

Sacred Scarabaeus, 244-246. 
Spanish-fly, 247. 

St. John’s Bug, 247. 

Seed Runner, 248. 
Staphylinus, 249. 

Sheep-tick, 256. 

Stable-fly, 256. 

Syrphus, 256. 

Sesia, 260. 

Sphinx, 261. 

Smerinthas, 262. 

Silk-worm, 263. 

Stauropus, 263. 

Thelyphonus, 231. 
Trombidium, 234. 
Tongue-worm, 237. 

Tenebrio, 243. 

Tumble-bue, 244. 
Two-winged Flies, 252. 


Triodite, 256. 

Tsetse Fly, 256. 

Thecla, 260. 

Tygena, 262. 

Tortrix, 262. 

Tinea, 265. 

Termite Ants, 269. 

Vanessa, 260. 

Water Bear, 235. 

Woodtick, 237. 
Weaver-bug, 248. 

Wasp, 274. 

BIRDS. 

Amazon Green Parrot, 299. 
Ara Ararauna, 301. 
Ant-eating Cuckoo, 308. 
Alcedo ispida, 318. 
Arapunga, 324. 

Agelaius, 329. 

Acorn Bird, 333. 

Amadina, 333. 

Ampelis, 337. 

Alauda, 340. 

Antheus, 342. 

Accentor, 345. 

American Ortolon, 345. 
Argus Pheasant, 362. 

Argus Giganteus, 362. 
American Pheasant, 363. 
American Bob White, 365. 
Ardia, 376. 

Adjutant, 386. 

Avocet, 390. 

Anser, 397. 

Anas Moschus, 403. 
vEthia, 407. 

Arctic Parrot, 409. 

Alca Impennis, 410. 

Alle Alle, 410. 

Aptenodytes, 411. 

Anous, 414. 

Albatross, 417. 

Accipitres, 419. 

Astur, 421. 

Aquila, 432. 

Apteryx, 443. 

Brilliant Elf, 283 
Birds of Paradise, 288. 

Bold Honey-sucker, 288. 
Beautiful Bird, 288. 

Bird of the Gods, 290. 

Bright Wing, 293. 

Blue Parrot, 300. 

Banksian, 302. 

Bronze Wing Dove, 314. 
Burrowing Birds, 317. 

Belted Kingfisher, 318. 

Black and White King¬ 
fisher, 319. 

Bee Eaters, 320. 

Blue Bird, 324. 

Bell Bird, 324. 

Bull-finch, 326. 
Bachelor-finch, 327. 
Blackbird, 329. 

Crow Blackbird, 329. 
Red-shouldered Bird, 329. 
Cow Bird, 329. 












INDEX. 


7 X 7 


Brown Thrush, 330. 
Baltimore Oriole, 331. 

Blue Jay, 333. 

Butcher Bird, 337. 

Black-cap Red-start, 339. 
Black-throated Bunting, 343. 
Bob-o’-link, 345. 

Butter Bird, 345. 

Brush Turkey, 349. 

Bay a Sparrow, 357. 
Botaurus, 380. 

Balsemceps, 385. 

Booby, 413. 

Buzzard, 431. 

Buteo, 431. 

Chlorostilbon Prasinus, 282. 
Crimson Topaz, 283. 

Comet of Sappho, 283. 
Chlamydera Maculata, 292. 
Cincinnurus Regius, 293. 
Carolina Parrot, 299. 
Conurus, 299. 

Coryllis, 300. 

Charmosyna, 300. 

Cockatoos, 301. 

Chrysotis, 301. 

Cacatua, 302. 
Calyptorhyncus, 302. 
Cuculidte, 305. 

Cuculus, 30 
Cuckoos, 305. 

Chaparral Cock, 308. 
Crotophaga, 308. 
Caprimulgus, 312. 

Collocalia, 312. 

Crested Swallow, 312. 
Cypselus, 3x3. 

Crested Dove, 314. 

Crowned Dove, 315. 
Columba, 315. 

Caloenus, 315. 

Carrier Pigeon, 317. 

Ceryle Alcyon, 318. 

Corvus Monedula, 322. 
Conacius Garrula, 324. 
Cross-bill, 326. 
Coccothraustes, 327. 
Cordinalis, 327. 

Chaffinch, 327. 

Cat Bird, 329. 

Cyanurus, 333. 

Cyanospiza, 337. 

Cedar Bird, 337. 

Cherry Bird, 337. 

Crowned Thrush, 350. 
Crested Curassow, 361. 

Crax Alector, 361. 

Coturnix, 365. 

Capercaillie, 370. 

Cock of the Woods, 370. 
Cock of the Plains, 371. 
Cranes, 376. 

Bearded, 376. 

White, 37 7 . 

Sandhill, 377 
Blue, 377. 

Demoiselle, 379. 
Trumpeter, 379. 

Crowned, 379. 

Chinese Jacana, 382. 
Cicoma, 382. 

Cancroma, 386. 


Cobbler’s Awl Bird, 390. 
Curlew, 390. 

Charadrias, 393. 

Chionis, 394. 

Crex, 396. 

Cygnus, 400. 

Cormorant, 401. 

Colymbi, 407. 

Crested Penguin, 409. 

Crab Diver, 409. 

Catharista, 437. 

Condor, 438. 

Cathartes, 441. 

Cassowary, 451. 

Cassiarius, 451. 

Docimastes ensifer, 282. 
Dendrochelidon, 312. 

Doves, 314. 

Dodo, 314. 

Didunculus, 316. 

Dacelo gigas, 318. 

Dotted Fly-snapper, 338. 
Dolichonyx, 345. 
Dicholopus, 394. 

Ducks, 403. 

Mallard, 403. 

Bridal, 403, 

Summer, 403. 

Mandarin, 404. 

Sheldrake, 405. 

Burrow, 405. 

Eider, 405. 

Piping, 406. 

Red-head, 406. 
Canvas-back, 407. 

Teal, 407. 

Dendronessa, 404. 

Darter, 414. 

Diomedea, 417. 

Dinornis, 443. 

Dromaius, 448. 

Epimachus Magnus, 290. 
Epimachus Albus, 29 X. 
Euphema, 294. 

Esculent Swallow, 312. 
Ectopistes, 316. 

Emberiza, 333. 

Erythacus, 339. 

Eremophila, 341. 

Enspiza, 343. 

English Sparrow, 343. 
English Partridge, 364. 
Egret, 377. 

Eurypyga, 381. 
Eurynorhyncus, 393. 
Egialitis, 394. 

Eudypes, 409. 

Elanoides, 430. 

Eagles, 432. 

Sea, 432. 

Bald-headed, 432. 

White, 432. 

Golden, 435. 

Brazilian, 436. 

Eagle of the Steppes, 436. 
Crested, 436. 

Harpy, 436. 

Emeu, 448. 

Flag-tailed Sylph, 282. 
Fratercula, 321. 


Fringilla, 327-344. 

FINCHES, 333. 

Siberian, 333. 

Bearded, 333. 

Snow, 333. 

Golden, 333. 

Fox Sparrow, 343. 

Furndrius, 350. 

Fan-tailed Warbler, 355. 
Fondia, 356. 

Flamingo, 375. 

Fulica, 402. 

Fuligula, 406. 

Fulmar, 418. 

Falcons, 423. 

Bengal, 423. 

Gerfalcon, 430. 

Wandering, 430. 

Peregrine, 430. 

Kingly Milan, 430. 

Goldia Conversi, 2S4. 

Ground Parrakeet, 294. 

Gray Parrot, 295. 

Green Macaw, 301. 

Great White Cockatoo, 302. 
Great Black Cockatoo, 302. 
Giant Cuckoo, 308. 
Geococcyx, 308. 

Goat-suckers, 309. 

Great African Kingfisher, 319. 
Galhulidae,320. 

Gros-beak, 327. 

Gold-finch, 328. 

Girlitz, 328. 

Garrulus, 333, 

Ground Robin, 339. 

Garden Red-tail, 339. 
Gold-crested Wren, 346. 
Grallina, 351. 

Golden Weaver, 353. 

Golden Oriole, 356. 

Grass Weaver, 356. 

Golden Pheasant, 362. 
Grouse, 368. 

Primated, 368. 

Black, 369. 

Ruffled, 370. 

Wood, 370. 

Great Bustard, 372. 

Crus, 377. 

Great Bittern, 380. 

Golden Trumpeter, 380. 
Godwit, 391. 

Gallinago, 391. 

Golden Plover, 393. 

Glareola, 395. 

Geese, 397. 

Wild, 398. 

Cape Barron, 399. 

Gray, 399. 

Ring-necked, 399. 

Brent, 399. 

Gray Lag, 399. 

Goose Angler, 400, 

Grebes, 407. 

Golden-crested, 408. 

Little, 408. 

Dabchick, 408. 

Garfou, 409. 

Giant Penguin, 411, 

Gulls, 415. 

Great Black, 415. 


Herring, 416. 

Skua, 416. 

Gypogeranus, 421. 
Gypaetusbarbatus, 440. 

Humming Birds, 279. 
Ruby Throat, 280. 
Emerald Hummer, 282. 
Sword-bill, 284, 
Flag-tailed, 284. 
Crimson Topaz, 283. 
The Topaz, 283. 
Trailing Sylph, 283. 
Brilliant Elf, 283. 
Spangled Coquette, 284. 
Horned Hummer, 284. 
Sparkling tail, 284. 
Thorn-tail, 284. 
Flame-bearer, 284. 
Black Warrior, 284. 
Sickle-bill, 285. 

Avocet Hummer, 285.. 
Trouser-leg, 285. 
Racket-tail, 285. 

Star Throat, 286. 

Sun Angel, 286. 

White Cap, 286. 
Hyacinth Arara, 298. 
Horn-bills, 304. 

Hoopce, 309. 

Hirundo, 312. 
Harporhynchus, 330. 
House Wren, 336. 

Hedge Accentor. 345. 
Honey-eater, 355. 

Hokko Hen, 361. 

Horned Tragopan, 362., 
Hazel Hen, 369. 

Herons, 380. 

Night, 380. 

Blue, 380. 

Brown, 380. 

Marsh, 380. 
Hydrophasianus, 382. 
Horned Screamer, 382. 
Htematopus, 394. 

Hawks, 422. 

Sparrow, 422. 

Chanting Falcon, 422.. 
Corn, 422. 

Windhover, 422. 

Kestril, 422. 

Eagle, 424, 

Fish, 425. 

Goshawk, 423. 

Chicken, 423. 

Honey Buzzard, 431. 
Halisetus, 432. 

Indigo Blue Bird, 337.. 

Ibis Religiosa, 388. 

White, 389. 

Scarlet, 389. 

Glossy, 389 
Straw-necked, 390. 

Irish Sanderling, 394.. 

Jacamars, 320. 

Paradise, 320, 

Green, 320. 

Jacamars. 

Three-toed, 320. 

Great, 320. 







7 lS 


INDEX. 


Jackdaw, 322. 

Joree Robin, 338. 

Jungle Fowl, 347. 

Jupuba Cassicus, 356. 
Jacana, 381. 

Jabira, 388. 

Jacksnipe, 391. 

King Bird of Paradise, 295. 
Kakapo, 300. 

Kea, 302, 

Kingfishers, 318. 

Kernel-biter, 327. 

Kildeer Plover, 394. 

Kites, 430. 

Swallow-tailed, 430. 
Mississippi, 431. 
Red-throated, 431. 

Little Eagle, 431. 

Kiwi, 443. 

Lophornis Ornatus, 283. 
Lophornis Reginse, 284. 
Lyre Bird, 289. 

Lorius, 301. 

Long-billed Parrot, 302. 
Leucosarcia, 315. 
Lepholdimus, 316. 
Laughing Jackass, 318. 
Loxia, 326. 

Lanius Collurio, 336. 

Larks, 340. 

Sky, 340. 

Meadow, 341. 

Shore, 341. 

Luscinmoe, 344. 

Long-tailed Titmouse, 356. 
Lophophorus, 362. 
LagoDus, 371. 

Little Bustard, 372, 
Leptoptilus, 386. 

Lineosa, 391. 

Litlle Auk, 410. 

Lestris, 415. 

Laridse, 415. 

Lammergeyer, 440. 

Menura Superba, 289. 
Melopsittacus, 294. 

Macaws, 301. 

Microglossus, 302. 

Maned Dove, 315. 
Megapelia, 315. 

Meropidse, 320. 

Marmots, 321. 

Mask-bird, 321. 

Magpie, 328. 

Molothrus, 329. 

Mimus, 329. 

Mocking bird, 330. 
Musicapa, 338. 

Motacilla, 340. 

May-bird, 345. 
Meadow-bird, 345, 
Megapodus, 347. 

Mahali Weaver Bird, 353. 
Mountain Cock, 370. 
Meleagris, 372. 

Mycteria, 3S8. 

Machetes, 393. 

Marsh Swallow, 395. 
Mergus, 400. 


Milvus, 430. 

Mooruk, 452. 

Nectarinia metallica, 288. 
Nasitima pygmsea, 299. 
Nestor notabilus, 302. 
Night Swallow, 3x0. 
Nicobar Dove, 315. 
Nightingale, 329. 
Nut-cracker, 333. 

Nucifraga, 333. 

New Holland Vulture, 349. 
Necklace Hen, 374. 
Nycteardea, 380. 

Numenius, 390. 

Noddy, 4x4. 

Neophron, 441. 

Oxpogon lindenii, 284. 

Owl Parrot, 300. 

Ocyphaps, 314. 

Oriolus, 331-356. 

Ortolan, 339. 

Oven Bird, 350. 
Orthotomus, 354. 

Origma, 355. 

Orchard Oriole, 357. 

Ortyx, 365. 

Otis, 372, 

Oyster Catcher, 394. 

Owls, 419. 

Hawk, 419. 

Canada, 419. 

Snowy, 419. 

Burrowing, 419. 
Coquimbo, 419. 

Boobook, 419. 

Cuckoo, 419. 

Winking, 419. 

Eared, 420. 

Eagle, 420. 

Horned, 420. 

Brown, 420. 

Long-eared, 420. 

Veiled, 420. 

Barn, 420. 

Ostrich, 442. 

Paradisea apoda, 288. 
Paradise Widow, 289. 
Paradisea superba, 291. 
Plume Bird, 291. 

Paradise rubra, 292. 

Parrots, 293. 

Pezaphorus, 294. 

Pakeornis, 295. 

Platycercus, 295. 

Psittacus, 295. 

Psittacella, 299. 

Palseornis, 299. 

Papuan Lory, 300. 

Purple Lory, 301. 
Plictolohidse, 301. 

Pink Cockatoo, 302. 
Passeres, 309. 

Pigeons, 3x4. 

Parrot Dove, 315. 
Phalacroteron, 315. 
Passenger Pigeon, 316. 
Puffin, 321. 

Pyrrhula, 326. 

Pica caudata, 328. 
Plectrophanes, 333, 


Pipilo, 338. 

Pipits, 342. 

Tree, 342. 

American, 342. 

Meadow, 342. 

Passenlla, 343. 

Parti-colored Wren, 346. 
Pied Grallina, 351. 
Placeidse, 352. 

Pliopasser, 353. 

Placeus, 353. 

Ptilotus, 355. 
Plectorhynchus, 355. 

Prus caudatus, 356. 

Ploceus, 357. 

Philetserus, 357. 
Ptilonorhynchus, 359. 
Pheasants, 362. 

Phasianidse, 362. 

Perdix cinereus, 364. 
Ptarmigan, 371. 

Pternistes 374. 
Phoenicopterus, 375, 
Psophia, 380. 

Parra, 381. 

Palameda, 382. 

Platalea, 386. 

Pebble Turner, 394. 
Porphyrio, 395. 
Phalocrocorax, 401. 
Pelicans, 411. 

White, 411. 

Brown, 411. 

Tropic Bird, 411. 

Gannet, 411. 

Darter, 411. 

Snake Bird, 411. 

Phaeton, 411. 

Plotus, 414. 

Procellarius, 418. 

Pernis, 431. 

Pandion, 431. 

Quail, 365. 

Virginia, 365. 

California, 367. 

Plumed, 368. 

Blue, 368. 

Ramphorhynchus, 277. 

Red Bird of Paradise, 292. 
Rose Hill Parakeet, 295. 
Ruffled-neck Cockatoo, 298. 
Rose Parrot, 299. 

Ring Parrot, 299. 
Ramphastidse, 303. 
Red-billed Toucan, 303. 
Ring Dove, 315. 

Rock Dove, 315. 

Red Bird, 327. 

Robin Redbreast, 338. 
Rucitilla, 339. 

Reed Bird, 345. 

Rice Bird, 345. 

Regulus Cristatus, 346. 

Rock Warbler, 355. 

Red Wing, 356. 

Recurvirostra, 390. 

Ruff, 393 

Rail, 396. 

Razor Bird, 410. 

Rhyncops, 414. 

Rhea, 449. 


Steganurus underwoodi, 282. 
Sword Bill, 282. 

Sparganura, 283. 

Spangled Coquette, 284. 
Sparkling tail, 284. 
Selasphorus scintilla, 284. 
Sword Beak, 282. 

Spathura underwoodi, 285. 
Sun Angel, 286. 

Superb Bird, 291. 

Spotted Bower Bird, 292. 
Semioptera wallaci, 293. 
Schlegel’s Bird, 293. 
Schlegelia wilsoni, 293. 

Scaly Parakeet, 294. 
Stringops, 300. 

Sittace, 301. 

Sulphur Cockatoo, 302. 
Scythrops, 308. 

Swallows, 309. 

Stock Dove, 315. 

Spotted Kingfisher, 319. 
Sheldrake, 322. 

Stormy Petrel, 322. 

Sialia sialis, 324. 

Starling, 326. 

Sturnus, 326. 

Serinus, 328. 

Sylvia luscinia, 329. 

Shrikes, 336. 

Loggerhead, 336. 
White-rumped, 336. 

Great Gray, 336. 

Saxicola, 339, 

Stone Chat, 339. 

Sturnella, 341. 

Snow Bird, 344. 

Sciarus, 350. 

Synalaxis, 351. 

Sericomis, 355. 

Swallow dicaeum, 355. 
Sociable Weaver, 357. 

Satin Bower Bird, 359 
Spotted Bower Bird, 361. 
Shining Pheasant, 362. 

Sun Bittern, 381. 

Storks, 382. 

White, 382. 

German, 384. 

Whale head, 385. 

Boat-bill, 386. 

Spoon-bill, 386. 

Sacred Ibis, 388. 

Scalopax, 392. 

Spoon-bill Snipe, 393. 
Sand-piper, 394. 

Strepsilas, 394. 

Scabbard-bill, 394. 

Seriema, 394. 

Sultan Plen, 394. 

Shade Bird, 396. 

Scopus, 396. 

Swans, 400 

Trumpeting, 400. 

Small, 400. 

Whistling, 400. 

White, 400. 

Black, 400. 

Saw-bill, 400. 

Somateria, 405. 

Spectacled Auk, 410. 

Sula fusca, 413. 

Sea Swallow, 414. 











INDEX. 


7 J 9 


Sea Tern, 414. 

Sterna, 414. 

Scissors-bill, 414. 

Stormy Petrel, 418. 

Strix, 419. 

Secretary Bird, 421. 
Serpent Falcon, 421. 
Sarcorhamphus, 438. 
Struthio camelus, 445. 

Trochilus, 280. 
Trichoglossus, 294. 
Trichoglossidae, 300. 
Toucans, 303. 

Turtle Dove, 314. 

Turtur, 314. 

Toothed Pigeon, 316. 
Top-knot Pigeon, 316. 
Ternate Kingfisher, 318. 
Tanysiptera, 318. 

Tadorma 322. 
Thalassidroma, 322. 
Tichodroma, 332. 
Titmice, 334. 

Great, 334. 

Blue, 334. 

Long-tailed, 334. 

Coal, 334. 

Marsh, 334. 

Bearded, 334. 

Yellow cheeked, 334. 
Cape, 335. 

Penduline, 335. 
Blacked-capped, 335. 
Crested, 335. 

Chicadee, 335. 
Troglodytes, 336. 

Towhee Bunting, 338. 
Tellegalla, 349. 

Tailor Bird, 354. 

Turdus iliacus, 356 - 
Toddy Bird, 357. 

Tetrao, 368. 

Tnngoides, 394. 

Tringa, 394. 

Tadorna, 405. 

Tropic Bird, 413. 

Turkey Buzzard, 441, 

Upupa, 309. 

Uria troile, 409. 

Vidua paradisea, 289. 
Vidua regalia, 289. 
Virginia Nightingale, 327. 
Virginia Quail, 365. 
Vultures, 437. 

Black, 437. 

Carrion, 437. 

King, 437. 

White, 437. 

Bearded, 439. 

Sociable, 439. 

Andean, 439. 

Egyptian, 439. 

Monk’s Gown, 441. 
Arabian, 441. 

Widdah Bird, 289. 
Warbling Parakeet, 294. 
Wire-tail Swallow, 312. 
Whippoorwill, 310. 
Wonga Dove, 315. 
Wall-creeper, 332. 


Woodpeckers, 323-332. 
Speckled, 332. 

Fly-snapper, 332. 
Red-headed, 332. 
Yellow-hammer, 332. 
Wood-hen, 332. 

Wheat-ear, 339. 

Wagtails, 340. 

White, 340. 

Yellow, 340. 

Pied, 340. 

Gray, 340. 

Weaver Birds, 352. 

Wild Turkey, 372. 

Water Pheasant, 382. 
Whimbrel, 391. 

Woodcock, 392. 

Water-hen, 402. 

Yellow-bellied Parakeet, 295. 
Yellow Macaw, 301. 

Yellow Magpie, 328. 

Xanthornis, 357. 

BATS AND MAMMALS. 

Atalalapha, 457. 

Artibeus, 460. 

Aculeata, 464. 

Amphitherium, 466. 
Australian Bear, 469. 

Ariel petaurus, 470. 

Australian Ariel, 471. 
Acrobata, 471. 

Autechinus, 476. 
Antechinomys, 477. 

Australian Hyena, 477. 
Armadillos, 478. 

Poyon, 479. 

Pampa, 479. 

Pichey, 479. 

Pichiciago, 479. 

Three Banded, 480. 

Giant, 481. 

Loricata, 482. 

Ai, 480. 

Arctopithecus, 480. 

Ant Eaters, 482. 

Ant Bear, 482. 

Tamandu, 483. 

Little, 483. 

Aard-vark, 483. 

Long tailed Manis, 483. 
Short-tailed Manis, 483. 
Pangolins, 484. 

Aard-vark, 483. 

Arctomys, 494. 

Alpine Marmot, 495. 

Agouti, 501, 5x7. 

Haytian, 520. 

Cuban, 520. 

Atherurus, 520. 

Aulocodus, 505. 

Arvicola, 510. 

African Gundi, 517. 
Agelophus, 524. 

Asinus, 559. 

Auchenia, 573 
Alpaca, 574. 

Axis Deer, 578. 

American Elk, 579. 

Alces, 581. 

Auroch, 587. 


Antelope, 594. 

Addox Antelope, 599. 
Aepyceros, 601. 

Antilocapra, 602. 

Alcephalus, 608. 

Asiatic Wild Sheep, 610. 
Argali, 611. 

Atlas Maned Sheep, 611. 
Afghan Fat-tail Sheep, 612. 
Anemotragus, 612. 

Alplocerus, 615. 

Allurus, 617. 

African Bear, 627. 

Anaponda Greyhound, 643. 
Anthropoids, 670. 

Aye-aye, 675. 

Acari, 682. . 

Alqualti, 684. 

Ateles, 686. 

Apes, 703. 

Bats, 452. 

Frugivora, 456. 

Horse shoe, 457. 

/ Lyre-like, 457. 

Red, 457- 

^ Long-eared, 458. 

Collar, 458. 

Hare, 458. 

American Rose-leafed, 458. 
Vampire, 458. 

Kalong, 458. 

Petropus, 459. 

Egyptian, 459. 

Glossophaga, 459. 
Wart-lipped, 459. 

Tailless Vampire, 459. 
Alecto, 459. 

Green, 459. 

Senegal, 459. 

Flying Marmot, 459. 
Poucfied, 460. 

European, 460. 
Hammer-head, 460. 

Armor-bearing, 460. 
American, 460. 

Fruit, 460. 

Nyctinome, 460. 

Mexican, 460. 

Colugo, 460. 

Bandicoots, 471. 

Pig-footed, 472. 

Banded, 472. 

Long-nosed, 472. 

Belideus. 471. 

Beaked Tarsipes, 471. 

Banded Ant Eater, 476. 
Bradypus, 479. 

Beaver, 496. 

Boomer, 498. 

Biscacha, 505. 

Bettongia, 507. 

Bamboo Rat, 509. 

Black Rat, 514. 

Blarina, 521. 

Baloenoptera, 524. 

Babyrousa, 564. 

Bactrian Camel, 57 2 - 
Black-tailed Deer, 583. 

Bison, 587. 

Bibos, 587. 

Banteng, 588. 

Brahma Bull, 588. 


Bubulus, 590. 

Buffaloes, 590. 

Bos, 590. 

Boschbok, 596. 

Beisa, 597. 

Bastard Gemsbok, 599. 
Budorcina, 607. 

Bubalus, 608. 

Bluebok, 609. 

Blessbok, 609. 

Bezoar Goat, 614. 

Bruang, 619. 

Brown Bear, 620. 

Black Bear, 621. 

Buansuah, 644. 

Binturong, 648. 

Babakoto. 671. 

Brachyurus, 680. 

Brazilian Titi, 681 
Brachyurus, 682. 

Baboons, 690. 

Bunder Monkey, 692. 

Burmah Macaque, 696. 
Beautiful-haired Monkey, 697. 

Chiromeles, 458. 

Cynonycteris, 460. 

Cuscus, 469. 

Collared Sloth, 479. 
Chaloepus, 482. , 

Coclothurus, 483. 

Castor, 496. 

Cercolabina, 498. 

Capybara, 498. 

Cavy, 498. 

Restless, 500. 

Mountain, 500. 

Souihern, 500. 

Celogenys, 500. 

Couiy, 504. 

.Cercolabes, 504. 

Cuypie, 505. 

Chinchillas, 505 
Alpine, 505. 

Woolly, 506.' 

Pale-footed, 506. 
Short-tailed, 506 
Cuniculus, 519. 

Cricetus, 513. 

Cormorandal Rat, 515. 
Capromys, 517. 

Ctenodactylus, 517. 
Chrysachloris, 519. 

Crossopus, 520. 

Corsira, 520. 

Crocidura, 521. 

Centetes, 522. 

Colugo, 523. 

Cetaceans, 523. 

Whales, 523. 

Coryphene, 526 
Conies, 542. 

Camels, 569. 

Camelus, 572. 

Cervulus, 576. 

Cervus, 577. 

Caspian Deer, 577. 

Capreolus, 577. 

Coossus, 577. 

Carjacon, 583. 

Caribou, 585. 

Camelopardalis, 586. 
Cervicapra, 603. 








720 


INDEX. 


Cephalophus, 605. 

Chamois, 605. 

Connochetes, 606. 
Catoblespas, 607. 

Corsican Sheep, 610. 

Cape Sheep, 611. 

Capra, 013. 

Cashmire Goat, 614. 
Crab-eating Coon, 617. 
Coati, 617. 

Carcajon, 629. 

Coama, 634. 

Corsac, 634. 

Canis, 638. 

Coyote, 640. 

Cyon, 644. 

Crocuta, 645. 

Civet, 646. 

Cynogale, 647. 

Cenictis, 648. 

Cryptoprocta, 649. 

Chetah, 659. 

Caffre Cat, 665. 

Chinese Tiger Cat, 665. 
Chiromys, 675. 

Calugo, 675. 

Callithrix, 680. 

Cuxco, 681. 

Cacajao, 675. 

Capuchin, 685. 

Cebus, 685. 

Chameck, 686-87. 

Coaita, 686. 

Cynocephalus, 688. 

Cynopitheca, 691. 
Ceropitheci, 695. 

Cercoebus, 696. 

Collared Monkey, 697. 
Colobus, 697. 

Chimpanzee, 706. 

Desmodes, 459. 

Duck-billed Platymus, 464. 
Diprotodon, 466. 

Dryolestes, 466. 

Didelphis, 467. 

Dromicia, 469. 

Dendrologus, 475. 

Diabolus, 477. 

Dasyure, 477. 

Dolichods, 498. 

Dasyprocta, 501. 

Dormouse, 507. 

Dendromys, 516. 
Dasyprocta, 517. 
Delphinapterus, 524. 
Dolphins, 525. 

Dinotherium, 528. 

Damans, 543. 

Daw, 561. 

Dicotyles, 565. 

Dromedary, 572. 

Deers, 575. 

Dwarf Deer, 583. 

Duyker, 605. 

Damalis, 609. 

Dingo, 643. 

Death’s-head Monkey, 681. 
Drill, 689. 

Diana Monkey, 696. 

Echidnse, 464. 
Epriprymnus, 475. 


Edentates, 478. 

Ercthizon, 498. 

Erinaceus, 522. 

Elephants, 527. 

Maltese Pigmy, 527. 

Dwarf Fossil, 527. 

Indian, 529. 

Ceylon, 529. 

Sumatran, 529. 

Siamese, 529. 

African, 532. 
Elosmognathus, 546. 

Equus, 554. 

Eland of the Steppes, 594. 
Enhydris, 627. 

Ermine, 631. 

Egyptian Cat, 665. 

European Wild Cat, 666. 
Eriodes, 685. 

Frugivora, 456. 

Field Mice, 510. 

Fiber, 512. 

Feather Tail Tupaia, 519. 
Java Tupaia, 519. 

India Tupaia, 519. 

Fallow Deer, 580. 
Four-horned Antelope, 605. 
Ferret, 630. 

Fox, 633. 

Fennec, 634. 

Foussa, 649. 

Felis, 649. 

Galeopithecus, 460, 523. 

Great Flying Phalanger, 470. 
Great Kangaroo Rat, 475. 
Giant Armadillos, 478. 
Glyptodon, 478. 

Ground Hog, 494. 

Guinea Pig, 500. 

Ground Rat, 505. 

Gophers, 506. 

Camas, 506. 

Southern, 506. 

Chestnut, 506. 

Mexican, 506. 

Geomys, 506. 

Golden Geogale, 519. 
Gymnura, 522. 

Grampuses, 525. 

Guanaco, 573. 

Giraffe, 586. 

Gayal, 587. 

Gaur, 588 
Gemsbok, 597. 

Gazelle, 600. 

Gazella, 601. 

Gnu, 606. 

Grysbok, 608. 

Grizzly bear, 623. 

Glutton, 629. 

Gulo, 629. 

Galictis, 630. 

Guara, 640. 

Genet, 647. 

Gueparda, 659. 

Galagos 674. 

Galeopithecus, 675. 

Gelada, 689-695. 

Gibraltar Magot, 694. 

Green Monkey, 695. 

Grivet, 697. 


Gibbons, 702. 

Gorilla, 708. 

Halmaturus, 474. 
Hypdprymnus, 475. 
Hares, 486. 

Common, of Europe, 487. 
White, 488. 

California, 489. 

Jackass, 489. 

Sage, 489. 

South American, 490. 
Haplodon, 498. 

Hystricidae, 498. 
Hydrochoerus, 498. 

Hystrix, 501. 

Hamster, 513. 

Harvest Mouse, 514. 
Hutiaconga, 517. 
Plutia-caribali, 517. 
Hylomys, 521. 

Hedgehogs, 522. 

Siberian, 522. 
Madagascar, 522. 

Spiny Tanrec, 522. 
Banded, 522. 
Hyperoodon, 523. 

Hyrax, 543. 

Hippopotamus, 567. 
Hyoemoschus, 576. 
Hydropates, 577. 

Harnessed Antelope, 596. 
Hippotragus, 599. 
Hartebeest, 608. 
Hemitragus, 614. 

Helarctos, 619. 

Hyenas, 645. 

Herpestes, 647. 

Hemigale, 649. 

Hapalemur, 673. 

Hapale, 676. 

Howlers, 683. 

Hocheur, 697. 

Hoonuman, 700. 

Hylobates, 702. 

Insectivora, 518. 

Indian Zebu, 588. 

Ibex, 613. 

Indian Dhole, 644. 
Ichneumon, 647. 

Ingwe, 657. 

Indris, 671. 

Inuus, 694. 

Jerboa, 507, 

Jerbillies, 514. 

Jumping Hare, 517. 
Jumping Mouse, 517. 
Jemlah Goat, 614. 

Jackal, 638. 

Jaguar, 661. 

Jungle Cat, 666. 

Jacchus, 677. 

Kaola, 469. 

Kangaroos, 472. 

Bridled, 472. 

Crescent, 472. 

Papuan, 473. 

Antelope, 473. 

Brush, 473. 

Nailed, 473. 


Giant, 473. 

Woolly, 474. 

Red, 474. 

Rock, 474. 

Hare, 474. 

Burned Tree, 475. 
Tree, 476. 

Kogia, 524. 
Klipdach, 543. 
Koulon, 559. 
Kanchil, 575. 

Kobus, 603. 
Klipperspringer, 604. 
Koodoo, 610. 
Kubouk, 665. 

Lagorchestis, 474. 
Leporidae, 486. 
Lepus, 487. 

Lagomys, 491. 
Lagostomus, 505. 
Lagidium, 505. 
Lagotis, 505. 
Lemmings, 509. 
Snowy, 509. 
Myodes, 510. 
European, 510. 
Siberian, 510. 
Lophiomys. 517. 
Leucorkampus, 525. 
Llama, 573. 

Leche, 604. 

Lemur, 617. 

Lutra, 627. 

Lycaon, 642. 
Linsang, 646. 

Lion, 649. 

Leo, 649. 

Leopard, 656, 

Lynx, 666. 
Lichanotis, 671. 
Lemurs, 671. 
Lepilemur, 673. 

Loris, 673. 

Lion Monkey, 677. 
Lagothnx, 685. 
Lungoor, 701. 
Megaderma, 457. 
Macrotus, 458. 
Monotremes, 464. 
Marsupials, 466. 
Metatheria, 466. 
Macropus, 472. 
Myrmecobius, 476. 
Megatherium, 478. 
Myrmecophaga, 482. 
Manis, 483. 
Mesotherium, 486. 
Myopotamus, 505. 
Muscardinus, 507. 
Myodes, 510. 

Mus, 512. 

Musk-rat, 512. 
Monjouron, 512. 
Moles, 518. 

Changeable, 519.. 
Star-nosed, 519. 
African, 519. 
Hairy, 519. 

Rice, 519. 

Oregon, 519. 
American, 5 ! 9 - 
Microgale, 519. 









INDEX. 


72 


Macroscelides, 520. 
Mesoplodon, 513. 
Megaptera, 524. 
Mammoths, 528. 
Mastodons, 528. 
Muntjae, 576. 

Marsh Deer, 577. 

Moose, 581. 

Mule Deer, 583. 

Musk Deer, 585. 
Moschus, 585. 

Musk Ox, 594. 

Maharif, 599. 

Madoqua, 604. 

Merino Sheep, 611. 
Maned Sheep, 611. 
Mouflon, 6x2. 

Musk Sheep, 613. 
Mundes, 617. 

Melurus, 618. 

Mellivora, 628. 

Melis, 628. 

Mydaus, 628. 

Mink, 629. 

Mustela, 630. 

Mephitis, 631. 

Marten, 632. 

Maikong, 640. 

Mungos, 647. 

Mampalon, 647. 
Meerkat, 648. 

Maugue, 648. 

Malabar Civet, 648. 
Marbled Tiger Cat, 664. 
Mitis, 664. 

Mirvina, 665. 

Marmosets, 676. 

Midas, 677. 

Marakina, 678. 

Mycetes, 682-3-4. 
Marimonda, 686. 
Maudrill, 688. 

Macaque, 691. 

Maned Monkey, 697. 

Noctilio, 458. 

Nycteris, 459. 
Nyctinoraus, 460. 
Nototheria, 466. 

Norway Rat, 514. 
Neosorex, 521. 
Neuratrichus, 522. 
Neobaloena, 524. 
Nesodon, 545. 

Nakong, 596. 

Nilgau, 597. 

Nanotrogus, 604. 

Natal Bush-bok, 609. 
Nayaur, 611. 

Nasua, 617. 

Nandine, 617. 

Nyula, 648. 

Nepaul Tiger Cat, 665. 
Night Monkey, 678. 
Nyctipithecus, 678. 

Negro Monkey, 685-701. 
Nasalis, 700. 

Ornithorhyncus, 464. 
Opossums, 467. 
Crab-eating, 467. 
Merlins, 467. 

Yapock, 467. 
Didelphis, 467. 


Opossum Mouse, 471. 
Orycteropus, 483. 

Orca, 524. 

Orcella, 525. 

Onagra, 559. 

Ovibos, 594. 

Oryx, 597-599. 

Ourebi, 608. 

Ovis, 610. 

Otter, 627. 

Otocyon, 633. 

Ocelot, 664. 

Orang Out an, 704. 

Pleocotus, 458. 

Pteropus, 458. 

Porcupine Ant-eater, 464. 
Phascolomys, 469. 
Phascolarctos, 469. 

Petaurus, 470. 

Perameles, 471. 

Retrogale, 474. 

Phascogale, 476. 

Pouched Mouse, 476, 

Peba, 478. 

Priadonta, 478. 

Pentadactyla, 483. 

Pangolin, 484. 

Pikas, 491. 

Alpine, 491. 

Pigmy, 491. 

Rocky Mountain, 491. 
Polar, 491. 

Prairie Dog, 495. 

Paca, 500. 

Porcupines, 501. 

Crested, 501. 

Nepaul, 502. 

Brush Tail, 502. 

Prairie, 502. 

Canada, 502. 

Common, 503. 

Tree, 505. 

Mexican, 505. 

Petromys, 507. 

Potomigale, 520. 

Porpoises, 525. 

Porcus, 564. 

Phacochoerus, 564. 

Peccary, 565. 

Paco, 574. 

Pampas Deer, 577. 

Padua, 580. 

Poephagus, 589. 

Portax, 597. 

Pallah, 601. 

Prong-horned Antelope, 602. 
Pontaquaine, 608. 

Pied Antelope, 609. 

Perbura, 614. 

Procyon, 615. 

Passaris, 615. 

Polar Bear, 625. 

Palecat, 629. 

Plutorius, 629. 

Paguma, 629. 

Putorius, 630. 

Prinodon, 646. 

Parodoxurus, 648. 

Puma, 662. 

Pampas Cat, 665. 

Primates, 668. 

Propithecus, 671. 


Potto, 674. 

Perodicticus, 674. 
Parti-colored Sajou, 680. 
Pithecia, 681. 

Paranacu, 683. 

Papio, 688. 

Proboscis Monkey, 698. 
Presbytes, 698. 

Pithecus, 706. 

Quagga, 561. 

Quadrumana, 668. 

Rhinonycteris, 457. 
Rhinopoma, 459. 

Rodentia, 484. 

Rabbits, 490. 

Rats, 508. 

Norway, 514. 

Black, 514. 

Roof, 514. 

Giant, 515. 

Wood, 516. 

Bush, 516. 

Cotton, 516. 

Tree, 516. 

Mole, 518. 

Rhyncocyon, 521. 
Rachianectes, 524. 
Rhinoceroses, 547. 

White, 547. 

Long horned, 547. 
Keitloa, 547. 

Bornean, 548. 

Assam, 548. 

Indian, 548. 

Javan, 548. 

Rhinaster, 548. 

Siberian, 548. 

Russian Roe, 577. 
Red-coated Coassus, 577. 
Ruisine, Deer, 577. 
Roebuck, 578. 

Red Deer, 578. 

Reindeer, 584. 

Rangifer, 584, 

Roan Antelope, 599. 
Roove-bok, 601. 

Reed-bok, 603. 

Rupicapra, 605. 

Rocky Mountain Goat, 615. 
Raccoon, 615. 

Raccoon Fox, 615. 

Ratel, 628. 

Rasse, 646. 

Rubicund Saki, 680. 

Red Money, 695. 

Stenoderma, 459. 
Sphyrocephalus, 460. 
Spalacotherium, 466. 
Spotted Cuscus, 470. 

Sugar Squirrel, 470. 

Sloths, 482. 

Squirrels, 491. 

Flying, 494. 

Taguan 494. 

Scale-tailed, 494. 

Red, 494. 

Sciuropterus, 494. 
Spermophilis, 495. 
Sphiggurus, 504. 

Spalax, 509. 


Sigmodon, 516. 

Skull Cap, 517. 

Scapanus, 519. 

Scalops, 520. 

Solenodon, 520. 

Shrews, 520. 

Oared, 520. 

Italian, 520. 

Elephant, 520. 
Jumping, 520. 

Algerian, 520. 
Mozambique, 521. 
Beak-toothed, 521. 
European, 521. 

House, 521. 

Ciliated, 521. 

Mexican, 521. 

Mole, 521. 

Marsh, 521. 

Sorex, 521. 

Spanish Desman, 522. 
Shrew Mouse, 522. 

Sus, 562. 

Sambur, 577. 

Sonora Deer, 583. 

Sauga, 589. 

Spring-bok, 601. 

Saiga, 602. 

Stein-bok, 604. 

Saisin, 608. 

Sable Antelope, 608. 
Scopophorus, 608. 
Sassaby, 609. 

Strepsiceros, 610. 
Stein-bok, 613. 

Syrian Goat, 614. 
Snake-eating Goat, 615. 
Sloth Bear, 618. 

Sun Bear, 619. 

Spectacled Bear, 620. 
Syrian Bear, 621. 

Skunk, 628-31. 

Sable, 632. 

Suricate, 647. 

Serval, 663. 

Stenops, 673. 

Saki, 682. 

Sapajou, 685. 

Sai, 685. 

Spider Miriki, 685. 

Spider Monkey, 686. 
Silenus, 694. 

Sooty Mangabey, 696. 
Semnopithecus, 700. 
Simpai, 702. 

Siamong, 703. 

Simia, 704. 

Tachyglossus, 465. 
Trichosaurus, 469. 

T guan, 471. 

Tarsipes, 471. 

Tasmanian Wallabee, 474. 
Tasmanian Devil, 477. 
Tatons, 478. 

Tatusia, 478. 

Tataway, 479. 

Tamandua, 483. 
Tuko-tuko, 517. 
Thomomys, 518. 

Talpa, 518. 

Tursiops, 525. 

Toxadons, 543. 







722 


INDEX. 


Tapirs, 546. 

Tarpan, 554. 

Tajacu, 566. 
Taynicate, 566. 
Tragulus, 575. 
Tragelaphus, 596. 
Tetracerus, 605. 

1 Turkestan Sheep, 610. 
I Turkish Sheep, 611. 
Taxidea, 628. 

Tanati, 640. 

Tiger, 653. 

arsier, 675. 
Troglodytes, 706. 

Ungulates, 545. 
Ungulates, 569. 
Unarmed Deer, 577. 
Ugogo, 601. 

Ursus, 620. 

Vampyrus, 458. 


Vespertilio, 459. 
Viscacha, 505. 

Vlack Vark, 564, 

Vicuna, 574. 

Virginia Deer, 583. 
Vulpes, 633. 

Viverra, 646. 

Variegated Monkey, 695. 
Vervet Monkey, 697. 

Wombats, 469. 
Broad-nosed, 469. 
Broad-fronted, 469. 
Bernstein’s, 469. 
Vulpine, 469. 

Great browed, 469. 
Wallabee, 474. 

Woolly Dasyure, 477. 
Wood Chuck, 494. 

Water Vole, 5x1. 

Wood Mouse, 512. 


White-bellied Rat, 514. 
Wild Ass, 559. 

Wild Swine, 562. 

Wild Boar, 562. 

Warty Boar, 562. 
Bearded Boar, 562. 
Japanese Pig, 563. 
New Guinea Pig, 563. 
Indian Pig, 563. 

Bush Hog, 563. 

Bosch Vark, 563. 
Ethiopian Boar, 565. 
Water Deer, 576. 
Weeping Muntjac, 576. 
Wapati, 579. 

White-tailed Deer, 583. 
Waterbok, 603. 
Wallachian Sheep, 612. 
Wah Chitwa, 617. 
Wolverine, 629. 


Weasel, 630. 

Wolves, 640. 

Wild Dog, 642. 

Wogati, 665. 

Wanderoo, 694. 
White-throated Monkey, 697. 
Wou-wou, 702. 

Xenurus, 479, 

Xeres, 494. 

Yellow footed Mouse, 476. 
Yak, 589. 

Yakin, 607. 

Yagonarondi, 663 

Zebra Wolf, 477. 

Zapus, 517. 

Ziphius 523. 

Zebra, 561. 









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